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Traditional Dresses of Maharashtra – The Beauty of Intricacies

By
Sherline Modak
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2
Traditional-Dresses-of-Maharashtra
Image – Chandrakant Sontakke

Maharashtrian Culture

Every culture that thrives in India adds to the glorious diversity that the country has always been proud of. The people of Maharashtra have their own traditions that are a reflection of their heritage and a result of the climatic, social, and economic conditions that have prevailed in their land in the long run. The same can be said about the traditional dresses of Maharashtra.

Suggested Story: Maharashtra Culture: Exploring the Rich Tradition, Art, Music, Food and Festivals

In the Marathi language, ‘costume’ is called ‘vesh bhusha’, which translates to cloth and apparel that is worn to adorn and beautify oneself. In a civilization, costumes are as much of an imperative as other institutions, like agriculture and housing. Beginning as only to serve the basic needs of protection and modesty, garments and clothing have gradually become to signify one’s nationality, gender, and occupation, while also evolving their economic usage.

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtra

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Image – Harini Calamur via Flickr

The people of a region adopt a particular style of drapery or clothing as well as ornaments which are passed on from generation to generation, retaining its individuality as well transforming in some aspect or another. Such changes and development in traditional clothing are brought about by geographic, social, political as well as foreign influence. Although traditional clothing distinguishes one ethnicity from another, it also emphasizes the unifying solidarity that exists among the people of a particular culture.   

Maharashtrian clothing not only pleases the aesthetic sense but also portrays the rich heritage of the state, be it in terms of caste, profession, or geographic factors.

Maharashtra state has been a centre of confluence for various cultures since ages;  the Kushan, the Hun, and the Muslims from the north, the Greeks and the Romans from the western seas, or the British imperialists who brought Christianity. It is a land that has been ruled by the Peshwas, the Marathas, the Mughals, and the Sultans. The rich traditions and culture have been preserved and passed on even during times of overpowering modernisation and Westernisation.

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtrian Woman

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtrian Woman
Image – Sourav

Nauvari Saree

The most common form of clothing traditionally worn by Maharashtrian women is the saree named ‘Nauvari’, which means ‘nine yards’, signifying the length of the fabric. It has a unique pattern of draping which is similar to that of the ‘dhoti’ worn by men and allows ease of movement. These sarees are also called the Kashta saree. It refers to the way it is tucked at the back after being draped around the waist and legs. 

Himroo and the Mashru

Emerging from the city of Aurangabad in the 15th century CE, the fabrics of the Himroo and the Mashru are luxurious legacies that have been passed down since the times when they were special only for the nobles. Woven with silver and gold threads, these fabrics blend both cotton and silk in a special handloom to produce the distinct and comforting finish of the texture. The process of weaving Himroo is more intricate and requires exclusive skill to master the finery of texture.

Paithani saree

The Paithani sarees originated in Aurangabad in 17th century CE. With its intricate gold-threaded zari embroidery and rich colours, these sarees are known to be perfect for exquisite occasions. They are dyed in traditional colours, made from pure silk and contain pretty motifs and symbols, especially along the pallav, which is the portion of the saree draped diagonally across the torso.

Traditional-Dresses-of-Maharashtra-Nauvari-Saree
Maharashtrian Woman in Kashta saree – Wikimedia

Narayan Peth Saree

From the district of Solapur, the Narayan Peth sarees are famous for their broad and vibrant borders. They are usually strewn around with little motifs called rudrakshas, that strikingly contrast with the rest of the fabric. The zari along the border or pallav of the saree is designed with threads of pure gold. The immaculate motifs of the Narayan Peth saree are usually of flowers and animals. 

Karvat Kati Saree

The Karvat Kati Saree originated in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, in the 18th century CE. The name ‘karvati kati’ literally translates to “saw-edged”, referring to the designs at the ends of the fabric that resemble the teeth of a saw. This saree is usually worn during rituals and ceremonies. Chandrapur and Gadchiroli are the main centres of reeling activities while the weaving takes place at Bhandara and Nagpur districts. 

Maharastra-dress-traditional
Photo by Rosario Fernandes

Ganga-Jamuna Saree

The traditional Ganga-Jamuna sarees of Maharashtra originated from the Solapur District and have vivid colours on both the sides of the warp and the weft such that the cloth can be worn and presented in either way. The Nagpur saree, made of Tussar silk, is unique for its designs of checks and stripes across the body and its ornamented borders. Always kept definite in its width and length, the Khana material is used to produce blouses that are traditionally folded in triangular shapes and offered to God during religious ceremonies.

The sarees are worn along with a blouse called the ‘choli’ as the top, with hooks or buttons to allow ease of donning them. During religious practices or holy ceremonies, the women drape the pallav of their saree over their heads as a mark of gratitude and respect towards God and the elders.

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtrian Men

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Image – Anant Nath Sharma via Flickr

Dhoti’ and ‘Kurta

The indigenous attire of the men of Maharashtra includes the simple ‘dhoti’ and ‘kurta’. Tracing its roots back into the 5th century BC, the unstitched cloth called ‘dhoti’ or ‘dhotar’ is fitted accordingly by the wearer by adjusting the draping that goes around the waist and the legs, reaching up to the ankles. The Marathi dhoti is traditionally of sober colours and includes five knots with the extra end of the cloth being tucked in the front and the back. The city of Nagpur is the hub of producing traditional dhoti. During festivities, the men wear Achkan, Churidar, Suvar, and Pyjama. Made of cotton, the Pyjama is tightened around the waist with a string knot and allows comfort. The Churidar is also a type of trousers that fold into horizontal rings at the cuffs, a style that owes to the deliberately longer length of the legs.

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtrian Men
Image – Yogendra Joshi via Flickr

The ‘kurta’ is a loose, usually light-coloured shirt, that is traditionally suited for the tropical heat of the state. However, it also comes in attractive colours and designs to wear on occasions like weddings and religious ceremonies. The Pairan type of ‘kurta’ has the side-slits.

The sleeveless jacket or waistcoat named ‘bandi’ is often worn along with the shirt or ‘kurta’ and gives a well-rounded look, even during the heat thanks to its light, cotton fabric. A cap called ‘pheta’, which grew into its traditional worth during the Peshwa era, is also worn, usually to protect the head from scorching days. It is made of silk, cotton, or wool.

Kolhapuri sandals

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Image – Piqsels

The Kolhapuri sandals are a traditional symbol that has been around since the 13th century CE. These leather ‘chappals’ are handmade by locals in the district of Kolhapur, a central name in Maharashtrian culture. Open-toed and fitted to the feet with a T-strap, the footwear’s intricate designs are enhanced against its rustic look, usually coloured with vegetable dyes. Although their designs have evolved over the years, the Kolhapuri ‘chappal’ is remarkably durable and strong. These sandals had been most popular only with the menfolk of Maharashtra while the women preferred to be barefoot in the olden days.

Festivals & Maharashtrian Traditional Attire

Festivals-and-Maharashtrian-Traditional-Attire

The festivals of Maharashtra are undoubtedly grandeur affairs, full of traditional dancing, music, and whatnot. We see the ladies dressed in Paithani and Nauvari sarees, accessorized with traditional nath (nose rings), mangalsutra, and green bangles. The menfolk dress up in dhotis, kurtas, and pheta turbans on such occasions. All this goes to prove the close-knit nature of Maharashtrian society.

Revival of Traditional Dresses in Modern Fashion

Traditional Dresses of Maharashtra in Modern Fashion

While the traditional drapes of Maharashtra have a deep historical root, it can be easily seen that they continue to influence the fashion world today. Designers in India and abroad are drawing inspiration from Paithani sarees and Nauvari drapes, giving them contemporary twists. It is not limited to only Paithani weaves in bridal lehengas, even the modernized version of the Nauvari saree walks down the red carpet.

Maharashtrian sarees are often flaunted by celebrities and fashion icons at weddings and gatherings. With a modern twist to the age-old garments, this attire has seen revival. It’s not restricted to women alone, in modified versions of dhoti and pheta, men wear them too.

FAQs on Traditional Dresses of Maharashtra

FAQs-on-Traditional-Dresses-of-Maharashtra

What is a Paithani saree and why is it special?

Paithani saree is a handwoven silk saree originating from Maharashtra known for it’s intricate designs of gold and silver threads in its pallu. It is special because of its luxurious fabric and traditional craftsmanshi

How is the Nauvari saree different from other sarees?

Nauvari saree is nine yards long and worn in the dhoti style while the normal sarres are six yards long. This draping style allows for more freedom of movement, making it both practical and beautiful.

What holds significance in Maharashtrian culture about pheta?

The pheta is the traditional turban worn by the men in Maharashtra. It refers to pride, honor, and respect. It is worn during special occasions like weddings and religious festivals.

Where did Kolhapuri chappals originate from?

Kolhapuri chappals originated from Kolhapur town in Maharashtra state. These are hand-made leather sandals without any exaggerated designs and are known for their durability.

Do traditional Maharashtrian dresses have any place in modern scenarios?

Yes, many traditional Maharashtrian dresses like Paithani saree, Nauvari saree, and Kolhapuri chappals are worn in modern fashion. The designers have readily incorporated the old-fashioned weaves and styles in modern dresses which are becoming trendier in both formal as well as informal ways.

Few Lines on Traditional Dresses of Maharashtra

Few-Lines-on-Traditional-Dresses-of-Maharashtra

  1. Paithani saree is generally a luxury product with subtle craftsmanship.
  2. The Nauvari saree is worn uniquely for the sake of free movement.
  3. These Kolhapuri chappals linger for a long time and can be paired with both traditional and modern attire.
  4. The pheta is an honor and pride for men to wear.
  5. Maharashtra’s various festivals showcase the beauty of traditional attire.
  6. The traditional clothing of the people of Maharashtra depicts the state’s long cultural heritage.
  7. Marathi traditional clothing inspires the fashion world of the modern era since they were rediscovered again in the public domain.

Keynotes

The traditional dresses of Maharashtra are not just clothes, it is a celebration of history, culture and identity. Noted for exquisite Paithani sarees, elegant Nauvari sarees, and many more, this intricacy within the traditional attire of the state leaves everyone in awe and inspiration for both basic wear and modern fashion at the same time. With deep-rooted meaning and timeless, Maharashtra’s traditional dresses emerge as epitomes of the state’s cultural heritage.

Swami Vivekananda Life Lessons: A student’s Guide to a Better Life

By
Maitri Jha
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0

Swami-Vivekananda-Life-Lessons-01

Introduction

Swami Vivekananda was a philosopher, religious teacher and author. He was the chief disciple of Hindu mystic Ramakrishna Paramahansa. He was one of the most influential philosophers and social reformers in his contemporary India and a key person introducing Vedanta and Yoga to the western world. He also helped in raising interfaith awareness and bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion in the late 19th Century. 

His education philosophy is based on universal principles of morality and ethics. He gave equal importance to spirit and matter, and diversity and unity. He wanted to teach common masses of India ideals of tolerance, and universal harmony. His teachings have left a great impact on Indian socio-cultural traditions. Swami Vivekananad’s teachings focused on the themes of Vedantas and Upnishads. He inspired youth to be brave and fearless. His messages offer a guiding light to the young minds who are seeking purpose, meaning and a path to a bright future. 

Swami Vivekananda wrote many books on his philosophies to teach and enlighten the youth. Even today, Swami Vivekananda books for students light the right path for people who read them. 

1. Raja Yoga

Overview:

Raja Yoga is Swami Vivekananda’s interpretation of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, providing a guide to mental control and meditation techniques. The book explores various practices such as Dhyana (meditation), Pranayama (breath control), and Samadhi (the state of superconsciousness).

Key Themes:

  • The power of meditation in mastering the mind and emotions.
  • Techniques for achieving self-realization through the eightfold path of yoga, including ethical discipline, mental control, and self-awareness.
  • Practical exercises for focusing and training the mind to achieve deeper mental clarity.

Importance:

This book is particularly useful for students seeking to improve concentration, reduce stress, and gain mental clarity. It offers not only theoretical knowledge but also practical steps to implement in daily life. As students navigate academic pressure, the lessons of Raja Yoga help in maintaining a balanced mind.

2. Jnana-Yoga

Overview:

Jnana-Yoga, also known as The Yoga of Knowledge, is a collection of Swami Vivekananda’s lectures delivered in New York, transcribed by Joseph Josiah Goodwin. It explains the philosophical foundation of Vedanta, delving into the pursuit of wisdom, self-inquiry, and the knowledge of the ultimate truth.

Key Themes:

  • Understanding the nature of the self (Atman) and the universe (Brahman).
  • The significance of rational thought, logic, and reasoning in seeking truth.
  • The teachings of the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita, explored through scientific reasoning and modern thought.

Importance:

Ideal for students interested in philosophy and critical thinking, Jnana-Yoga promotes the importance of self-knowledge and the intellectual pursuit of truth. It is invaluable for those wanting to explore Vedantic philosophy and apply its principles in a structured, logical manner.

3. Karma Yoga

Overview:

Karma Yoga, another collection of lectures by Swami Vivekananda, explores the concept of selfless action as described in the Bhagavad Gita. It emphasizes the importance of work and duty as a means of spiritual growth and ultimate liberation.

Key Themes:

  • The philosophy of Karma: Every action has a consequence, and selfless actions lead to spiritual progress.
  • Work as a means to attain spiritual liberation, without attachment to the results.
  • The idea that fulfilling one’s duty with dedication and detachment leads to personal and collective growth.

Importance:

This book is crucial for students learning about dedication, hard work, and self-discipline. It reinforces the concept that work, when done with focus and without selfish motives, is a form of worship and a path to enlightenment.

4. Lectures of Colombo to Almora

Overview:

Lectures of Colombo to Almora is a compilation of Swami Vivekananda’s speeches delivered during his travels across India after his return from the West in 1897. These lectures addressed large audiences and inspired the youth and general public with his vision for a revitalized India.

Key Themes:

  • The call for national regeneration, highlighting the role of self-confidence and unity in India’s progress.
  • The necessity of blending spiritual heritage with modern scientific progress.
  • The duty of the youth to take responsibility for the nation’s future, fostering societal progress.

Importance:

This collection inspires students to think beyond personal achievement and contribute to the nation’s growth. It provides an essential message of patriotism, encouraging individuals to align personal success with collective national progress.

5. Lectures on Bhagavad Gita

Overview:

Swami Vivekananda’s Lectures on Bhagavad Gita offers a concise interpretation of this sacred Hindu text, simplifying its teachings for modern readers. It is an anthology of Vivekananda’s opinions, writings and comments on the sacred text. It is a powerful interpretation of the sacred Hindu text which combines Vivekananda’s insights with the timeless lessons of the Gita, focusing on how these teachings can be applied to contemporary life.

Key Themes:

  • The path of Karma (action), Bhakti (devotion), and Jnana (knowledge) as described in the Gita.
  • The relevance of Gita’s teachings in addressing the challenges of modern life, including decision-making and personal growth.
  • Practical insights into finding inner peace and balance through the Gita’s wisdom.

Importance:

For students, this book serves as a guide to understanding the Bhagavad Gita’s complex teachings, making them accessible and relatable. It offers valuable insights into managing personal growth, ethics, and the balance between material and spiritual pursuits.

6. Meditation and its methods

Overview:

This book provides a detailed exploration of meditation according to both Yoga and Vedanta traditions. Divided into two sections, Meditation according to Yoga and Meditation according to Vedanta. It includes Swami Vivekananda’s various lectures, thoughts, and teachings on the practice and purpose of meditation.

Key Themes:

  • Methods of meditation based on both Patanjali’s Yoga and Vedantic teachings.
  • Enhancing inner peace, focus, and self-awareness through regular meditation.
  • The impact of meditation on mental clarity, emotional control, and spiritual development.

Importance:

For students, this book is a valuable resource to develop coping mechanisms for academic stress and pressures. The meditation techniques offered help improve focus and mental health, providing tools for managing emotions and enhancing productivity.

7. Vedanta: Voice of Freedom

Overview:

Vedanta: Voice of Freedom is a compilation of Swami Vivekananda’s ideas on Vedanta philosophy, drawn from his various speeches and writings. It presents a comprehensive understanding of Vedantic thought, tracing its evolution over thousands of years.

Key Themes:

  • The principles of Vedanta, focusing on the unity of all existence, the divinity of the soul, and the oneness of God.
  • The connection between individual self-realization and universal truth.
  • The evolution of Indian spiritual thought and its relevance to modern life.

Importance:

This book is particularly beneficial for students interested in spirituality and philosophy. It offers profound wisdom on self-discovery and personal freedom, emphasizing that knowledge of the self leads to true liberation.

8. My India: The India Eternal

Overview:

In My India: The India Eternal, Swami Vivekananda shares his vision for India, discussing its historical greatness and his hopes for its future. The book emphasizes the role of youth in shaping India’s destiny and calls for dedication to national development.

Key Themes:

  • The glorification of India’s ancient past, coupled with a pragmatic vision for its future.
  • The duties of Indian youth in bringing about social, economic, and cultural transformation.
  • Swami Vivekananda’s love for his country and his belief in its spiritual leadership in the world.

Importance:

This book inspires students to align personal goals with national progress, fostering a deep sense of patriotism and responsibility. It encourages young minds to contribute to the betterment of India through dedication, service, and self-confidence.

9. Power of The Mind

Overview:

This lecture, delivered by Swami Vivekananda in Los Angeles in 1900, discusses the infinite power of the human mind. Power of the Mind highlights how individuals can tap into their mental potential using the principles of Yoga.

Key Themes:

  • Unlocking the hidden powers of the mind through mental discipline and focused thought.
  • The connection between thoughts, actions, and success.
  • Harnessing the mind’s potential for personal growth and achievement.

Importance:

Students can benefit from this work by learning how to control and strengthen their mental faculties, cultivating strong determination and focus to achieve success in both academics and life.

10. To the Youth of India

Overview:

To the Youth of India is a collection of motivational speeches and lectures by Swami Vivekananda, delivered to audiences across India and Sri Lanka. In these speeches, Vivekananda calls upon the youth to take responsibility for their lives and the nation, urging them to embrace courage and integrity in the face of challenges.

Key Themes:

  • The role of youth in shaping the future of India through self-reliance and moral strength.
  • Empowerment of the young generation to overcome obstacles and work towards the country’s advancement.
  • Encouraging responsibility, leadership, and nation-building through personal discipline and commitment.

Importance:

This book serves as a source of inspiration for students, pushing them to be brave and resilient, and to contribute actively to building a better future for India. It emphasizes the importance of taking initiative and striving for progress, both personally and collectively.

11. Women of India

Overview:

Women of India is based on a lecture Swami Vivekananda delivered at the Shakespeare Club House in Pasadena, California. It addresses the role and position of women in Indian society, advocating for gender equality and women’s empowerment. Vivekananda’s progressive ideas on social reform and the status of women are the focus of this work.

Key Themes:

  • The essential role of women in shaping society and contributing to national progress.
  • The need for social reform to ensure women’s education, independence, and empowerment.
  • Gender equality as a vital component of a healthy and progressive society.

Importance:

This book holds significance for students, especially those interested in gender studies, social reform, and the empowerment of women. It provides a forward-thinking view on women’s rights and the importance of fostering an inclusive and equitable society.

12. My Idea of Education

Overview:

In My Idea of Education, Swami Vivekananda shares his philosophy on education, focusing on character-building, moral values, and holistic learning. He explores the role of education in personal development and its relationship with society, emphasizing the need for education that goes beyond academic achievements.

Key Themes:

  • The purpose of education as a means of character-building and fostering values.
  • The importance of educating women and ensuring equal opportunities for all.
  • The holistic approach to learning, which includes intellectual, moral, and physical development.

Importance:

For students, this book offers a profound understanding of education as a tool for not only acquiring knowledge but also for building character and contributing to societal growth. It presents forward-thinking ideas that remain relevant in the context of modern education.

13. Work and its Secret 

Overview:

Work and Its Secret explores the nature of work and its role in achieving success and personal fulfillment. Swami Vivekananda discusses how selfless, focused work can lead to spiritual growth and how distractions and attachments hinder productivity. The book also emphasizes the importance of balancing the means with the end while working.

Key Themes:

  • The concept of selfless work and its role in personal and spiritual development.
  • The importance of concentration and attention in achieving success.
  • Viewing work as worship and a means to enlightenment.

Importance:

This book is a valuable resource for students, teaching them the principles of discipline, focus, and dedication. It helps them understand how to approach their tasks with the right mindset, without attachment to results, thereby enhancing productivity and achieving long-term success.

14. My Master

Overview:

In My Master, Swami Vivekananda reflects on the life and teachings of his guru, Ramakrishna Paramahansa. He discusses the lessons learned from his master’s spiritual journey, emphasizing the importance of mentorship, faith, and guidance in the pursuit of enlightenment.

Key Themes:

  • The significance of spiritual mentorship and the role of a guru in guiding one’s spiritual development.
  • Ramakrishna Paramahansa’s life as an embodiment of spiritual ideals and devotion.
  • The importance of faith, surrender, and humility in learning.

Importance:

This book offers students insights into the value of mentorship and the profound impact that guidance can have on their personal and academic journeys. It encourages them to seek knowledge not only through books but also through teachers, mentors, and personal experiences.

Conclusion

Swami Vivekananda’s whole life is an inspiration and a guide to learn from and his books for students are a beacon of light guiding them to the right path. His books offer timeless wisdom and practical guidance for students seeking overall development. Through his books, one can cultivate discipline, resilience and a deeper sense of responsibility toward themselves and society. 

His philosophy not only gives students insights on self-development but also teaches them about societal duties and a progressive mindset. He is an inspiration for developing patriotism in the youth and building a powerful vision in them for their country. 

FAQs on Swami Vivekananda Life Lessons

Why should students read Swami Vivekananda’s books?

All his books emphasize on mental strength, self-discipline and the importance of          education with purpose. His books are a great inspiration for students to achieve a better and successful life.

Which book by Swami Vivekanada is best for improving focus and concentration?

Raja Yoga and Meditation and its Methods are the two books which one should use for improving focus and concentration.

How to start reading Swami Vivekananda?

All the books of Vivekananda serve a purpose of enlightening its reader, providing with a meaning and a better path to follow. There is no chronology to read his book, one can pick any book they want to explore and give it a read.

What did Swami Vivekananda read?

Swami Vivekananda read Bhagwad gita and The Imitation of Christ.

What is the secret of Vivekananda memory?

His extraordinary memory and intelligence comes from high level concentration achieved by him.

Few Lines Swami Vivekananda Life Lessons

  1. Swami Vivekananda was a Hindu monk, a great Indian Philosopher, author and religious teacher.
  2. In his books like “Raja Yoga1’ and “Meditation and Its Methods” he teaches students focus enhancing and clarity through meditation.
  3. His book, “Karma Yoga” and “Work and Its Secret” emphasize the importance of selfless work and dedication to success. 
  4. “Youth of India” motivates students to be courageous, responsible and dedicated to national progress. 
  5. “My Educational Philosophy” emphasizes the need for a holistic education that builds character and values. 
  6. “Power of the Mind” teaches students to harness the power of their mind to overcome life’s challenges.
  7. Swami Vivekananda’s writings guide students toward academic excellence, personal growth, and service to society.

Top Traditional Games of India that Defined Childhood for Generations

By
Tasneem Sariya
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10

Traditional-games-of-India

We quite often lament when we see our kids glued to the TV or phone. Especially during the pandemic when taking them outdoors seems highly impossible. And thus, as we watch a generation of children find entertainment in gadgets and technology, we cannot help wondering and remembering the games of yesteryears. Those were the traditional games of India that took up a large stock of our time after school. They kept us on our feet, quite literally, running around on quiet streets or terraces. They helped us learn about teamwork and deep friendships. And of course, about a childhood that has shaped our lives forever. 

Traditional Games

So what are these traditional games that I am harping on about? How are they special and different from the Candy Crushes and Counter Strikes of today? Let’s take a look at some important traditional games of India that have defined childhood for entire generations. This list comprises both indoor and outdoor games, and hence, it is beneficial for both physical and mental strength.

1. Kabaddi

Traditional-games-of-India-Kabaddi

Let’s begin with one of the best-known games of the country. A game played without any gear or equipment it is based on pure strength and strategy. Played between two teams the game involves a single player from each team trying to touch down and break into the area of the opponent team. The player needs to touch as many players of the opposite team while reaching the line. And all of this while humming ‘kabaddi’. It certainly is a game that can keep you on the edge of your seat. 

2. Kho-kho

Traditional-games-of-India-Kho-Kho
Image Courtesy – Unbound.org

Again a team sport, Kho Kho is particularly popular in schools. The first team sits in alternating directions while the other team runs around them. The aim is for the sitting team to catch as many from the running team. But it’s a sport that requires strategy and presence of mind. A player from the team sitting starts the game and touches his teammate to continue the chase. 

3. Kancha or Lakhoti

Traditional-games-of-India Kancha
Image – Yasser Alaa Mobarak via Flickr

Played with our dear old marbles, kancha or lakhoti is also known as golli or goti. The game is about trying to strike a particular marble amidst many, using another marble. The striker marble is held between the middle finger of one hand and pulled by another before release. There is no set limit to the number of players who can play this game. 

4. Hopscotch or Nondi

Traditional-games-of-India-Nondi
Image – Wikimedia

The Indian version of one of the most well-known childhood games of all time, nondi (in Tamil Nadu) is also called stapoo and kith kith. A ladder grid is drawn on the floor and numbered. A stone or any other object is then thrown on any of the numbers, and the player has to hop their way to the numbered block without stepping on the edges or any other block. Played inside apartment stairways or flat surfaces, this game sticks out as an easy game to play in both large and small groups.  

5. Gilli Danda

Traditional-games-of-India-Gilli-Danda
Image – Tamil.indianexpress.com

Alright, we have probably heard this phrase several times. But how many of us really know what this game entails? Gilli Danda is a sort of fusion game between cricket and baseball. The Gilli is a small stick that needs to be hit by the danda or the longer stick as far as one can. After hitting the Gilli, the player needs to run to a particular point before the opponent team can retrieve the Gilli. Gilli danda is also known as Lippa in some parts of India. 

6. Lattoo

Traditional-games-of-India-Lattoo
Image – Pambaram FB

Another popular term lattoo quite literally means the spinning top. Though the word is also used often in various other meanings and forms, the game itself is pretty simple. It is all about making the top spin for the longest amount of time. And also, mastering the skill of lifting the moving top off with the string. The tops were initially made of clay and later replaced with wood. However, one can find many different tops today in the market, some even with lights and sound effects. 

7. Chaupar

Traditional-games-of-India-Chaupar
Image – Wikimedia

One of the oldest indoor games of India, Chaupar finds mention in the epic Mahabharata. Also called Pachisi, this board game was extremely popular in ancient times. Played with pawns or shells the dice is rolled and the players strategize the movement of their pawns. Pachisi can be better understood as an older version of the modern-day Ludo.

8. Pallankuli

Traditional-games-of-India-Pallankuli
Image – Framing Narratives

Another indoor game Pallankuli finds its origins in South India. Played earliest in Tamil Nadu the game spread throughout the southern states and even to Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Played on a board that consists of rounded or cup-like columns the game is played with seeds or shells. The idea is to move the shells or seeds from one cup to another in a clockwise direction till the cups are empty. 

9. Lagori

Traditional-games-of-India-Lagori
Image – Compassion.com

A common street game one might often have seen children trying to topple off a stack of stones. One player from the team gets three chances to knock off the pile of seven stones with a ball. The entire team then tries to restore the stack before being out. Played with two teams it’s a great game that requires minimal props. This game is known by different names, including pithoo, satoliya, and more.

10. Antakshari

Traditional-games-of-India-Antakshari
Image – YouTube

This is a standard and staple game which has probably left its mark on family functions, social events, train journeys and much more. A fun game filled with music and lots of soul, Antakshari is one of the most loved and played game. Perfect for any occasion, it consists of two teams. The first team starts singing, and the last letter of where they leave off the song is the letter that the other team picks up and begins a new song. This game can go on forever and lightens up the mood with rhythm and music. 

11. Moksha Patam

Traditional-games-of-India-Moksha-Patam
Image – Wikimedia

Moksha Patam, also known as Gyan Chaupar, is a medieval Indian board game. It was typically played on a cloth board with a succession of squares. Some of the most complex boards included additional iconographies, such as portraits or ornate borders. It was a board game used by religious authorities to educate the distinction between good and evil, with ladders symbolising good and snakes representing evil. The game’s oldest surviving example is from seventeenth-century Mewar. Moksha Patam found its way to Britain in the 1890s when it was named Snakes and Ladders. While the British version preserved some focus on moral principles – with images of good and evil behaviours on the squares that bookended each ladder or snake – it did away with the Indian version’s spiritual undertones and complexities. This 2-4 person game has a long history of popularity and may be enjoyed by individuals of all ages.

12. Chupan Chupai

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This is a popular children’s game also known as ‘Luka Chuppi’ or ‘Chupan Chupai.’ The premise is that any number of players can hide in a predetermined area that one or more searchers must locate. While the other players wait, one player chooses to close their eyes and count the game to a specific number. After hitting this number, the player who is “it” yells out, “Ready or not, here I come!” and then attempts to locate the hiding players. Hide-and-seek is another name for this game. This game, however, required the capture of all participants. When one person is caught, the others pitch in to try to find the other concealed participants. The chain becomes longer when each captured player joins.

13. Aankh Micholi

Traditional-games-of-India-Aankh-Micholi
Image – Wikimedia

Aankh Micholi is a popular outdoor group game for youngsters aged 5 to 12. This group game is actively played by both boys and girls. The denner, one of the participants, is blinded with a piece of cloth. While blindfolded, the denner must grab one of the other participants. All other players disperse in the wide space in order to escape being captured by the denner. The players are permitted to produce sounds in order to provide indications for the direction to the denner. The denner’s turn ends when he or she is able to catch one of the participants. The denner’s turn ends when he or she is able to catch one of the participants. This person now becomes the denner for the following turn, and the game continues until all players agree to stop it. This game helps players build sensory abilities, awareness, and a sense of hearing. The denner, or blinded player, must make spatial judgments based on his listening talents. This assists the denner in improving his or her ability to be attentive and have a sense of sound at all times. This game also aids in the development of touch sense.

14. Vish-amrit

Traditional-games-of-India-Vish-amrit
Image Source

Vish Amrit is a popular childhood game among children aged 3 to 12 in several regions of the country. Vish means ‘poison’ and Amrit means ‘nectar’ in Sanskrit. It is a popular group chase game. This game is often known as Lock and Key in cities. The denner, one of the participants, is blinded by a piece of cloth. While blindfolded, the denner must grab one of the other participants. All other players disperse in the wide space in order to escape being captured by the denner. The players are permitted to produce sounds in order to provide indications for the direction to the denner. The denner’s turn ends when he or she is able to catch one of the participants. This person now becomes the denner for the following turn, and the game continues until all players agree to stop it. This game helps players build sensory abilities, awareness, and a sense of hearing. The denner, or blinded player, must make spatial judgments based on his listening talents. This assists the denner in improving his or her ability to be attentive and have a sense of sound at all times. This game also aids in the development of touch sensitivity.

There are many other games that most of us can easily remember and recognize. Hide and seek or chuppam chhuppi, langdi, gutte, chain chain, four corners, lock and key, maram pitthi (similar to dodgeball) and many more such games have been an integral part of our lives as children.

15. Posham Pa Bhai Posham Pa

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Image Source

A classic Indian kid’s game called “Posham Pa” captures the simplicity and delight of early play. It can be played in a room or outside with a group of friends, and all that is needed is a playful spirit and the desire to have fun. As the other players disperse and conceal, one player closes their eyes and counts. When the counting is complete, the seeker opens their eyes and departs in search of their companions who are hiding. As they search, the seeker yells, “Posham Pa!” and, when they discover a concealed friend, they dash back to the beginning to catch them before they can escape.

It’s a game that builds relationships between players and fosters treasured memories via strategy, stealth, and laughter. Posham Pa embodies unrestricted delight, bringing back memories of the joy of childhood activities and the small pleasures of companionship.
Traditional Indian games today.

Traditional Indian Games Today

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Of course, technology has overpowered our lives today. Children are happy playing video games or online sports. Yet, one cannot say that childhood games have disappeared or lost their importance. Even today, in apartments or closed localities, children often meet up in evenings to play. Their games might include cricket and football too, but the traditional games continue to hold forte in their little hearts and minds. 

On the other hand, some traditional games such as kabaddi have thankfully made a huge comeback with the backing of sponsors and sports channels. With leagues and the support of popular sporting and other celebrities taking interest in the game, kabaddi is surely being showcased on larger platforms. Similarly, kho-kho is also trying to find its place and remains a popular game especially at school. 

Why Are Indian Traditional Games Important?

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Any sport or game should be given an important place in the routine and curriculum of a child. Sports help to build physical and mental strength of its players. However, with traditional games, the biggest advantage is its ad hoc existence. It does not require expensive infrastructure or dedicated coaching. Though the more popular games, such as kabaddi and kho kho do have international tournaments, aside from these the other games are pretty much localized. The true flavour of these games lies in their accessibility and ease of play. 

Suggested Read – Traditional Toys of India: Practice of Culture and Profession

Also, one can look at them from a traditional, social and cultural aspect too. Children get together in their free time and form a camaraderie that helps them build social and cultural bonds. These children come from different families, religions and social backgrounds. Yet, they find a common ideology and strategy plan while coming together to play these games. Whether the children are in rural or urban areas, or from any economic strata, these games do not require them to be anything additional than themselves.  Also, not to forget the understanding of real team spirit is often nurtured unaware through unassuming traditional games.

List of Traditional Games of Indian

Click to View the List of Outdoor Indian Games
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Game Name Historical Significance & Current State Skills & Developmental Benefits
Kabaddi Ancient team sport mentioned in Indian epics; now a professional game with televised leagues. Boosts strength, endurance, teamwork, and decision-making under pressure.
Kho-kho An ancient chasing game, formalized in modern sports circuits; played in schools across India. Improves agility, reflexes, and spatial awareness.
Gilli Danda Rustic bat-and-stick game, believed to be a forerunner of cricket; now fading in urban areas. Enhances coordination, hitting accuracy, and strategic movement.
Lagori Stone-pile and dodgeball game; still popular in rural India and school grounds. Sharpens aim, reflexes, and team coordination.
Kancha / Lakhoti Played by young kids in rural areas, each region has its unique interpretation of this game. Trains focus, precision, and competitive thinking.
Lattoo Spinning top game enjoyed by generations; still found in toy markets but less common. Builds motor control, patience, and timing.
Hopscotch / Nondi Traditional pavement game with regional variations; continues to thrive among kids. Improves balance, coordination, and counting skills.
Click to View the List of Indoor Indian Games
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Game Name Historical Significance & Current State Skills & Developmental Benefits
Chaupar Dice game from the Mahabharata period; evolved into various board games today. Boosts tactical thinking, math skills, and memory.
Pallankuli Southern Indian game played with seeds; still a popular family pastime during festivals. Improves arithmetic skills and hand-eye coordination.
Moksha Patam Ancient spiritual board game; modern version is globally known as Snakes and Ladders. Introduces values, turn-taking, and number awareness.
Antakshari A musical memory game still quite popular at parties or picnics. Boosts memory, listening skills, and musical creativity.
Chupan Chupai Common hide-and-seek game still enjoyed by children indoors and outdoors. Develops stealth, planning, and reflex timing.
Aankh Micholi Blindfold-based guessing game; part of traditional group play. Enhances listening, trust, and team spirit.
Vish-amrit Tag-style game with ‘freeze’ rules; still a playground favorite. Improves agility, observation, and social interaction.
Posham Pa Bhai Posham Pa A rhyme and dance game commonly played in circles by youngsters. Builds rhythm, memory, coordination, and cooperation.

Not for Kids Alone

Traditional games are not necessarily limited to kids alone. Some of the indoor games can be played by families, and are popular with women. Hopscotch, for example, is often usually played by young girls. Similarly, antakshari is a great game that can be played with teams of varying generations. The essence of these games is to bring people closer and help them interact in constructive ways. 

Benefits of Playing Traditional Games of India

Traditional games not only help in preserving cultures and help people connect with India’s rich heritage and traditions, but also act as learning aid. They help in develop sensory skills, motor skills and hand-eye coordination. Physical games like Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, and Gilli Danda improve stamina, agility, and strength. Games like Chess, Pachisi and Ganjifa (a traditional card game) help in improve focus, strategy, and decision-making skills. Playing in groups foster teamwork, leadership, and communication.

Key Takeaways

Finally, traditional games of India have a rustic and local flavour to their method and techniques. Their names, as well as the style of playing, are seeped heavily into the local, regional, and cultural nuances of its surroundings. And hence because of this, often these always become much more than mere time passing games. They become a means of building teams, characters, strategies and a deeper understanding of true core values.

FAQs About Traditional Games of India

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Image – Venkataramesh Kommoju/Flickr

Question: What is the oldest game in India?

Answer: The oldest game known in India is said to be Chaturanga or Chess which dates to around the 6th Century CE.

Question: What are the 5 traditional games of India?

Answer: Some of the most popular traditional games of India include, Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Gilli Danda, Lagori, Pachisi and, Mallakhamb.

Question: Which game is known as the King of the games in India?

Answer: Chess is considered as the “king of games” in India.

Question: Which game came first in India?

Answer: From ancient origins to modern tournaments, Chess remains one of the world’s most enduring and beloved games.

Question: Which traditional Indian games have international recognition?

Answer: Kabaddi, Chess and Polo are the games which have become worldwide popular.

Five Lines on Traditional Games of India

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Image – India Water Portal/Flickr
  1. Traditional games of India reflect its rich cultural heritage, passed down through generations and deeply rooted in regional customs.
  2. Games like Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, and Gilli Danda promote physical endurance, agility, and teamwork while requiring minimal equipment.
  3. Games like Pachisi and Chess, strategy-based games, foster mental sharpness, patience and planning, helping in intellectual development.
  4. Many traditional games have ancient origins, often linked to India mythology and historical epics.
  5. These games contribute to holistic development by enhancing physical fitness, mental sharpness, and social skills, also encouraging outdoor play.
  6. Traditional games like antakshari, chess, are games which are not only played among children, but adults are also a part of it.
  7. Even though technology has heavily influenced our lifestyles, traditional games are still a part of the lives of the children of today’s generation.

Indian Air Force Celebrates Air Force Day – A Spectacular Show That Touched The Skies

By
Tasneem Sariya
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Image Courtesy: All India Radio News

The Indian Air Force is a part of the Indian Armed Forces of the Republic of India. The IAF or Indian Air Force recently celebrated its 92nd anniversary on Air Force Day by glorifying the clear skies of Chennai’s coastline with amazing feats and flights. Air Force Day celebrations have been a mesmerising way of engaging the public and showcasing the might and skill of the Air Force. Though Delhi has witnessed most of these, since a few years, the IAF has performed in other cities, including Chandigarh and Prayagraj. 

The recent air show in Chennai threw light on the prestigious role of the IAF and is perhaps a good time to learn a bit about its history and significance. 

A Historical View of the Indian Air Force 

The Bharatiya Vayu Sena or Indian Air Force was established as an auxiliary air force by the British in 1932 on 8th October. On 1st April 1933 the first official flight took place and the  operational squadron with 6 trained officers and 19 air soldiers or Havai Sepoys came into being. 

During the Second World War the prefix ‘Royal’ was given to the IAF by the British Empire and it carried out various operations, such as halting the Japanese Army in Burma. The IAF was also involved in various other air operations in Europe and North Africa. Some of the legendary leaders who played crucial roles in the IAF during the British rule include Sergeant Shailendra Eknath Sukthankar, Noor Inayat Khan, Mohinder Singh Pujji and more. 

After India officially became a republic in 1950, the prefix ‘Royal’ was dropped and since then the IAF has been involved in a range of national security and humanitarian efforts. It played a crucial role in the four wars and undertook courageous operations that were instrumental in strategy and warfare.

Legendary Operations

The IAF with unfaltering bravery and skill has carried out pivotal operations in warfare. Some of its most notable operations, include Operation Meghdoot in 1984 that led to taking control of the highest battlefield in the world – the Siachen Glacier. Operation Poomalai or Eagle Mission 4, demanded airdropping essential supplies over Jaffna during the Sri Lanka Civil War. Operation Safed Sagar was the codename given for the Kargil War. 

Besides, the IAF has also been instrumental in leading humanitarian and rescue operations. They are called upon every time there is a natural crisis or emergency. In 2013 the IAF created a record by making the highest landing at 5065m in Ladakh on the Daulat Beg Oldi strip to deliver troops and supplies. Whether it was Yemen Evacuation, or during the Tamil Nadu Flash Floods, or Operation Karuna or rescue operations at Amarnath, Assam, Meghalaya and Kullu. Whether it was Operation Neer where the IAF airlifted packaged drinking water to Male or Operation Rahat where the IAF was crucial in saving lives in Uttarakhand floods, the Indian Air Force has never let the nation down. For both international and domestic humanitarian and rescue efforts, the IAF has never shunned from stepping up.  

Fleet and Flight

The IAF started off with humble beginnings where there were only limited aircrafts and trained personnel. However, today it boasts of a range of advanced and technologically updated equipment and aircrafts. In fact, from the late 1990s the IAF made concentrated efforts to upgrade and modernise its fleet. India is today the fourth largest airforce of the world and some of its most trusted and formidable aircrafts include Rafale, Sarang, Hawk, Tejas, Chinook, Apache and more. 

The IAF consists of both foreign and Indian make aircrafts. The Sukhoi Su-30MKI from Russia, Rafale and Mirage 2000 from France are a few internationally made aircrafts in the IAF inventory. Besides, the made in India aircrafts, include the HAL Tejas, HAL AMCA, HAL Marut, HAL Prachand Light Combat Helicopters, Rudra Advanced Light Helicopters, HAL TEDBF, HAL Ajeet and more. 

Air Shows

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To celebrate the Indian Air Force Day, the IAF performs dazzling air shows across the country. From parades to air shows, the anniversary celebrations are a way to showcase the strength, resilience and achievements of the Indian Air Force. This year, 2024, saw one of the most daring and enthralling air shows themed as ‘Bhartiya Vayu Sena – Saksham, Sashakt aur Atmanirbhar’ (Potent, Powerful and Self Reliant). 

Celebrated on 8th October on the Marina Beach in Chennai it was a spectacle to behold. With about 13 lakh spectators this air show has now entered the Limca Book of Records. It was the 92nd anniversary of the Air Force Day and the show was hosted by Chennai after a long 21 years. 

IAF Air Show Chennai – To Touch the Sky with Glory

Lakhs of spectators witnessed the spectacular air show. Besides, thousands of viewers watched it online. With 72 aircrafts participating, the skies of Chennai lit up with the colors of the tiranga and the thundering sound of the jets as they flew, somersaulted, looped, swirled and not only made but captured hearts. Set across the hot sun rays shining on the calm waters of the ocean, the aircrafts zoomed across the beach, performing heart stopping stunts with a roaring aplomb. The Sukhoi Su-30 jet performed the loop-tumble-yaw move, the Sarang Helicopters swished past each other in what seemed like inches apart to spectators down below. Fighter jets performed ‘Snap Rolls’ and ‘Vertical Charlie’ and the ‘Red Eye Turn’ with extraordinary speed and clarity. LCA Tejas, Rafael, HAL Prachand, MiG 29, Jaguar, MI-17, Dakota, C-295, P-81, Mirage 2000, Harvard and many other iconic, as well as, modern aircrafts toured and touched the sky with glory. 

The Akash Ganga Sky Diving Team created magic with their adventures and free falling stunts. The Special Garud Force commandos enacted and displayed rescue operations freeing hostages. However, the show stoppers, the magnificent displays by the Surya Kiran team wrapped it all up perfectly. 

Surya Kiran Team

The Surya Kiran is an aerobatics unit of the IAF. SKAT or Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team has its base in Bidar Karnataka and was formed 1996. However, aerobatics were not an alien concept for the IAF prior to the formation of SKAT. The Thunderbolts were an aerobatic team that were in action till 1989 and aerial shows were also held on various occasions, such as, the 1947 Independence Day celebrations and on the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the IAF. 

The first public air display by SKAT was held in 1996 in Coimbatore. The pilots go through a selection process twice in a year and serve the team for three years. With approximately 30 performances in a year the Surya Kiran Team is a delight to watch. During the 2024 air show in Chennai, the SKAT garnered immense love and applause from the crowd as the team synchronised exceptional moves and left trail blazers of the Indian tricolor. With swirls and loops and sky marches, they created some of the best air movements on the blue landscape of the sky. 

Also, just to give perspective, the pilots of SKAT are experienced flyers, who are flying only a few feet apart from each other at the speed of more than 500km per hour. The nine aircrafts in perfect alignment looked like diamonds in the sky as they looped, slid and left behind them trails of perfect symmetry.

The air show focused to give insight into the structure and character of the IAF. It also aimed to inspire the younger generation to find their true professional and personal calling in the air force. 21 years ago when the air show displayed its glory in Chennai, 2 boys watched the show in mesmerised wonder. Those two boys were a part of the IAF air show this year and were on the very same beach, albeit, this time up in the air!

Watching the colors of the Indian flag etch long lasting hues in the skies, as the thunderous roars of the aircrafts whizzed past at astounding speeds, visitors at Marina Beach and the many watching the show on screens, could probably hear the national anthem playing in their minds and a sense of utmost respect and patriotism for the place they call home. 

The IAF is undoubtedly, one of the most prestigious and honourable institutions of the country. To learn about teamwork, courage, discipline, detail, practice and dedication, the IAF remains one of the highest citadels of education, technology and patriotism. 

FAQs on Indian Air Force Day

Q: When is Air Force Day celebrated and why?

A: Air Force Day is celebrated on 8th October. It was on this day in 1932 that the Indian Air Force was established.

Q: Where were the Air Force Day shows held in the last three years. 

A: The IAF air show was held in Chandigarh in 2022, Prayagraj in 2023 and Chennai in 2024.

Q: What was the theme of the 2024 AIF air show?

A:  ‘Bhartiya Vayu Sena – Saksham, Sashakt aur Atmanirbhar’ (Potent, Powerful and Self Reliant). 

Q: What is the aerobatic team of the IAF called?

A: The Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team or SKAT is the aerobatic display team of the IAF.

Q: What are some of the aircrafts that are a part of the IAF inventory?

A: Rafael, Sukhoi, Tejas, Chetak, Jaguar, MiG, Mirage and more.

Few Lines on Indian Air Force Day

  1. An air show that dazzled the skies of Chennai 
  2. IAF displays stunning air show on the Marina Beach
  3. Air Force Day celebrations – An insight into the achievements and skill of our air commandos
  4. Learn about the Indian Air Force – Its history, growth, fleet and operations
  5. IAF Air Show – To Touch the Sky with Glory
  6. Speed, Skill and Precision – A look at the IAF celebrations
  7. Sound, Action and Colors – A splendid display by the IAF

Special Wishes for Navratri & Instagram Postcards to Send Your Loved Ones!

By
Rupsha Sen
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Wishes-for-Navratri

Navrati is seen to be one of the most blessed times of the year. For the next nine days, there is a sense of celebration in the air, and the occasion is commemorated with passion across the country. Devotees begin preparing for the holiday days in advance, and temples are brightly adorned.

The word Navratri is derived from a Sanskrit word that means ‘Nava’ as nine and ‘Ratri’ as night. Each day is dedicated to one of goddess Durga’s nine avatars (Shailputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kaalratri, Mahagauri, and Siddhidatri), and each day has a special colour associated to it.

The celebration represents good triumphing over evil. Goddess Durga is said to have fought the demon Mahishasur (who embodies egotism) for nine days, with the final day, when the demon was beheaded, being known as Vijay Dashmi.

In different sections of the country, the holiday is known by different names, and the ceremonies and traditions vary from state to state. In certain parts of Northeast India, Navratri is known as Durga Puja. Devotees in the north and west of the country observe the event by fasting, staging ‘Ramlila,’ culminating in Dussehra, when the effigies of Ravana and his siblings are burned, once again symbolising the triumph of good over evil. It is known as Golu in Tamil Nadu, and dandiya nights are widely popular in Gujrat.

Here are some must-share joyful wishes for Navratri to brighten up your celebration!

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“May Navratri bring you good health and fortune for all of the nine days.” Wishing you a wonderful Navratri!

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“Navratri has a magical quality to it, transforming the mundane into the exceptional, darkness into light, and misery into bliss. Happy Navratri!”

Wishes for Navratri 02

“May the Goddess Durga shower you with numerous blessings and bring you a lot of joy.” Happy Navratri!

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“Hope Maa Durga’s nine blessings of name, fame, health, wealth, happiness, humanity, knowledge, devotion, and power are bestowed upon you.” Greetings and love on the occasion of the Navratri.

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“Colourful Garba and dandiya dances fill the air on nights like these. Enjoy this Navratri celebration, and may you have a blessed time.”

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“May the Mahashakti Maa Durga protect your family from harm and grant everyone’s wishes, and may this Navaratri bring joy to all!”

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“This celebration infuses our life with a rainbow of colours. May your life be dominated by vibrant hues. Have a wonderful Navratri!”

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“Lakshmi bestows the inherent treasure of divine attributes and virtues. Hope you have a joyous Navratri!”

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“May this occasion usher in happiness and success. As the sacred occasion of Navratri approaches, and the air is filled with the spirit of joy and love, here’s wishing you have a wonderful time!”

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“May Maa Durga shower you with endless blessings of prosperity, happiness, and health and peace this Navratri…”

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“May you be successful in all your endeavours with Maa Durga’s blessings. Wish you and your family a very happy Navratri.”

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“Here’s hoping that the colours, beauty, bliss, and happiness of this auspicious celebration continue with you not just for the next nine days, but for the rest of your life. Happy Navratri!”

 

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“It’s time to greet Maa Durga and thank her for all the wonderful things we’ve received this year. Let’s make this year’s Navratri a memorable one!”

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“On this Navaratri, let us pray for eternal peace and happiness. May Maa Durga accept and fulfil all of our prayers.”

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 “Allow Navratri, to bring you hope, boldness, and strength. Wish you a happy Navratri!”

Festivals bring colour and excitement into our lives. Every year, they bring us closer together and dispel any emotions of communal hatred. Furthermore, they strengthen community ties and eradicate animosity from people’s hearts. As a result, festivals are extremely important and should be celebrated with passion.

Durga – Exploring Images of the Devi in Rajasthani Art

By
Soma Ghosh
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Did you know that Goddess Durga reigns supreme and is the divine feminine as Devi in Hinduism? She is a divine mother fondly called Mata. The legend of Durga appears as an avatar of Parvati, who is angry, ferocious and has eight to ten arms, holding weapons and skulls, riding a lion or tiger. She is a warrior goddess who kills Mahishasura whom the male Gods were unable to control. Durga is a unified form of all Gods. Let’s know more about this much revered Goddess through depictions in the art of Rajasthan, India. 

Durga – The legend

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Durga as Mahisasuramardini, 1100 AD, phyllite, Rajasthan, India, Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, USA. – Wikimedia

The mythology of Durga is described in the Devi Mahatmya, a part of the Markandeya Purana from the 4th to 6th century. There is anothee version in the Shiva Purana which says Lord Shiva invoked Durga from his left half to create and together both created Shivaloka.  As per the Devi Mahatmya, Mahishasura, son of demon Rambha unleashed terror on earth and defeated the Gods. The Gods then approached Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Together they created a woman on whom they bestowed weapons and she was Durga. Durga as Mahishasuramardini is one of the manifestations of the Divine mother whose primary aim is to combat demons who threaten the cosmos. She has many arms and each has a different weapon. She rides on a lion and defeats the buffalo demon Mahishasura who has been given a boon that no-one can defeat him except a woman. The demon’s entire army was challenged by Durga. Mahishasura attacked Durga as a buffalo-demon whom Durga kills with a trisula (trident) after a fierce battle.

The image of Durga as Mahisasuramardini is very much seen in art of India. A sculpture in the Dallas Museum made of phyllite from Rajasthan shows her standing having vanquished Mahishasura.

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Durga on amulet, Rajasthan, 20th century – Wikimedia

Amulets are worn in India to protect and ward off evil energies. Shown here is a silver amulet from Rajasthan where Durga is shown with her weapons and emblems.

Durga – Manifestations

The nine manifestations of Durga or Navadurga are worshipped during Navaratri in the month of Ashwin of the Hindu calendar; Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta,Skandamata,Katyayani,Kaalratri,Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri. Durga is associated with two mountain ranges, the Himalayas in the north and the VIndhyas in central India. She is Paravati in the Himalayas; daughter of the mountains. Durga images have been found in Afghanistan (ancient Gandhara) and also in Tibet. 

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Mahavidyas and Navadurgas, Amber Fort-palace door, Rajasthan, 16th century – Wikimedia

The Devi Mahatmya has three episodes. In the first Durga is the sleep state or yoga nidra of Lord Vishnu. The demons Madhu and Kaitabha are threatening to destroy the cosmos. Brahma calls upon the Goddess to emerge and she comes out through Vishnu’s eyes, mouth, nose, arms and chest. Thus Vishnu becomes awake and vanquishes the demons. The second episode is the story of Durga as Mahisasuramardini. The male Gods have been defeated by demons or asuras whose leader is Mahishasura. A strong rage or the tejas of all the Gods takes the form of a woman, Durga who rides lion and is armed with weapons given by the Gods and slays the buffalo-demon, Mahisasura. In the third episode too, the Gods are defeated by the demons or asuras Chanda and Munda and Shumbha and Nishumbha. This time the Devi or Durga emerges from the skin of Parvati who is the consort of Lord Shiva and during the battle from her forehead emerges Kali with a tongue dripping with blood and who wears a necklace of skulls and who finishes off the evil beings. The Devi Mahatmya is a religious text which describes the Devi as the supreme power and creator of the universe.  This text is used by Shakta groups (who worship the Devi as supreme), Vaishnavas, Shaivas and others.

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Three incarnations of the devi, Jaipur, Rajasthan, late 18th century, National Museum of Warsaw, Poland – Wikimedia
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Page from Devi Mahatmya manuscript, Sirohi, Rajasthan, circa 1700, LACMA, USA – Wikimedia
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Durga slaying Nishumbha, Folio from a Devi Mahatmya, Jaipur, circa 1825-50, LACMA, U S A – Wikimedia

Durga in other texts

In the 10th or 11th century another text the Devi Bhagavata Purana and the Shakta poem Soundaryalahiri became important. Thus Devi or Durga as Lord Shiva’s consort, Mahishasuramardini, cosmic power, divine feminine became an important part of Indian religious tradition and culture.

The Devi Bhagavata Purana looks upon the Devi or Shakti as the creator of the Universe and as the Brahman or ultimate reality. This text celebrates the divine feminine and is a mix of mythology, metaphysics and about the conflict between Gods and asuras or good and evil. Durga is described as the eternal truth, the nirguna or formless, saguna, with form, the unchanging reality or purusha and the changing reality or prakriti and the very soul of living beings.

Soundaryalahiri is a poem written by Adi Shankara and sage Pushpadanta about the beauty and grace of Goddess Parvati. It is tantra text book with instructions about pujas, offerings and various yantras.

The matrikas are seven female divinities, together called saptamatrikas; Brahmani, Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Indrani, Kaumari,Varahi and Chamundi. They assist Lord Shiva to battle Andhakusura and assist the devi in their fight with demons.

Forms of the Devi

Durga is Sachika in the Jodhpur area of Rajasthan. She is called Sharika in Kashmir, Meenakshi in the south, Kamakhya in the east. All over India local goddesses are identified with Durga. She is Chandi in Punjab and Haryana. In Kerala she is Bhagavati and worshipped as Bathukamma in Telangana. The earliest evidence for the feminine aspect of God appears in the Rigveda as Devi suktam. Hymns to the Devi or Goddess appear in the epic Mahabharata too. By the 3rd or 4th century, the devi became an important aspect of Hindu tradition. The mahadvidyas are a group of ten aspects of Adi Parashakti (Durga) in Hinduism. The mahavidyas include Buddhist goddesses too and are important aspect in Shaktism; and include Kali, Tara, Tripura Sundari, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi and Kamala.

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Mahadevi, Bikaner, Rajasthan, circa 1725The Met, New York – Wikimedia
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Durga slays Mahishasura, painting, Kota, Rajasthan, circa 1750, Philadelphia Museum of Art, U S A – Wikimedia

Every year during the month of Ashwin(which falls during late September and early October),Durga Puja is celebrated in many Indian states especially West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Bihar, Tripura, Meghalaya and Jharkhand. Durga Puja celebrates the victory of Goddess Durga over the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. She is worshipped as destroyer of evil and protector of her devotees with great pomp and festivities.

References –

  1. Pal, Pratapaditya,ed./Goddess Durga : the power and the glory, Mumbai: Marg Publications,2009.
  2. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devi_Mahatmya(accessed 23.10.2023) 
  3. https://deccanviews.wordpress.com/2016/10/04/durga-in-indian-art-some-miniature-and-sculpture-depictions/(accessed (22.10.2023)

Why Every Business Needs a Dedicated Cybersecurity Company

By
Cscope Staff
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0

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Cyber threats are everywhere. It’s not just big corporations that need to worry about data breaches, ransomware, or phishing attacks—small and medium-sized businesses are at risk too. If you’ve been unsure about whether your company needs a dedicated cybersecurity partner, let’s break down why specialized protection is a must for every business.

The Threats Are Real and Growing

Cyber threats are becoming more frequent and more sophisticated. Without the right defenses, your business could easily fall victim to an attack. Hackers are getting creative, and the tools they use are evolving every day. A dedicated cybersecurity company knows how to stay ahead of these developments and put proactive defense strategies in place.

They’ll keep a constant eye on your systems, watching for any signs of trouble and stopping potential breaches before they escalate. Reacting after the damage is done is often too late—staying proactive is key, and that’s what a dedicated cybersecurity partner can provide.

Access to True Cybersecurity Experts

Your in-house IT team might be fantastic, but expecting them to handle all aspects of cybersecurity can be a lot to ask. Cybersecurity is a specialized field that requires focused training and continuous learning.

A dedicated cybersecurity company gives you access to experts who live and breathe cybersecurity. These specialists know exactly what to look for and how to keep your systems safe from evolving threats. This kind of expertise would be tough—and expensive—to build and maintain internally.

24/7 Monitoring for Peace of Mind

Cyber threats don’t take a day off, and neither should your defenses. With a dedicated cybersecurity company, you get around-the-clock monitoring of your systems. This constant vigilance is crucial because attacks can happen at any time, even outside of typical working hours.

If something suspicious pops up at 2 AM, your cybersecurity partner will catch it and respond before it becomes a crisis. Knowing that someone is always watching your back is a huge relief and ensures your business stays protected, day or night.

Solutions That Fit Your Business

Every business is unique, and your cybersecurity solution should be too. A dedicated cybersecurity company will take the time to understand what makes your business tick—your risks, your needs, your goals—and craft a security strategy that’s tailored to fit.

Whether it’s setting up secure access protocols, installing firewalls, or training employees, they provide a customized approach. You won’t be paying for unnecessary services, and you’ll get exactly what your business needs to stay secure.

Simplify Compliance

Many industries have specific rules and regulations about how data should be managed. Staying compliant isn’t just good practice—it’s legally required, and failing to meet these standards can lead to major fines and reputational damage.

A dedicated cybersecurity partner knows these regulations inside and out. They’ll help ensure your business meets all necessary guidelines, taking the burden off your shoulders and making sure you’re protected from compliance-related penalties.

Minimize Damage When Attacks Happen

No system is 100% immune to cyberattacks. But when you have a cybersecurity company on your side, the impact of a breach can be significantly reduced. They have incident response plans ready to go, which means they can jump in quickly, contain the issue, and start the recovery process.

This fast action helps to minimize downtime, prevent further data loss, and reduce the overall damage to your business. Without this kind of support, an attack could lead to days of lost productivity and a significant hit to your reputation.

Employee Training Matters

One of the biggest cybersecurity risks is human error. All it takes is one employee clicking on a bad link, and your entire network could be at risk. A dedicated cybersecurity company doesn’t just protect your systems—they also make sure your employees are educated and prepared.

They provide training on recognizing phishing attempts, using strong passwords, and following best practices for data security. When your team knows how to avoid potential threats, it makes your entire business more secure.

Ignoring Cybersecurity Is Risky Business

Some businesses hesitate to invest in cybersecurity because they think it’s an unnecessary cost. But the cost of doing nothing can be devastating. A successful cyberattack can lead to financial loss, damage to your reputation, and even legal troubles.

The average data breach can cost a business thousands, not to mention the long-term impact of losing customers and trust. Investing in a dedicated cybersecurity company is a smart move that helps you avoid these potential losses and keeps your business running smoothly.

Focus on What You Do Best

Running a business is hard enough without having to worry about cyber threats. When you bring in a dedicated cybersecurity company, you get to focus on what you do best—growing your business, serving your customers, and innovating—while the experts handle your security.

This partnership means less stress, less time spent worrying, and more time spent doing what you’re passionate about, knowing your business is in safe hands.

Ready to Protect Your Business?

Cyber threats aren’t going anywhere, and they’re only getting more sophisticated. Every business, big or small, needs a dedicated cybersecurity company to stay protected. From proactive monitoring to compliance support and employee training, the benefits are undeniable. Don’t wait for an attack to force your hand—take control of your cybersecurity now and keep your business safe for the future.

Expansion of Indian Territory Outside India: Historical Conquests and Cultural Influence

By
Shiksha
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2
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Image – Wikimedia

Introduction

Historically, India has had many great kings and emperors who were instrumental in conquering the other regions outside the Indian subcontinent. All of these demands were arising depending on the needs in search of wealth, aims to spread religion and the need for large empires. There are Southeast Asia, Central Asia and a portion of the Middle East, which were controlled by India’s ruling members in ancient as well as medieval ages. In this essay, the author aims at examining different Indian empires and kingdoms that performed such expansion exercises, their purposes, strategies they used and general consequences of their reign on conquered territories.

The Maurya Empire

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The Mauryan Empire, c. 321 – 185 BCE. Image: Simeon Netchev, Creative Commons License.

The first example of Indian rulers’ imperialism outside the Indian peninsula is in the Mauryan Empire in Ashoka’s reign. The Maurya Empire which rose in the late 4th century BC has been acknowledged one of the greatest empires ever in Indian history. Of these the most famous is Ashoka, who reigned during 268 to 232 BCE and who is especially remembered for his attempts to take Buddhism out of India.

However, the expansion that Ashoka had was not purely military. He lived like a king of Kalinga and after the gruesome Kalinga war, he turned into a follower of Buddhism and believed in non-violence and the law of dharma. Ashoka has spread his mission to different regions of Asia and parts of southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Central Asia. These missions have enhanced the process of the spread of Buddhism that contributed much to the cultural and religious dimensions of the regions. Ashoka’s edicts are recorded in different parts of the Indian subcontinent up to modern day Afghanistan and Nepal.

The Chola Dynasty

Expansion-of-Indian-Territory-Outside-India-by-The-Chola-Dynasty
Chola Empire. Image: Wikimedia

India rulers have also enlarged their dominion concerns to countries beyond India; the Chola dynasty, for example, of the southern part of India that thrived between the 9th and 13th centuries. The Cholas were great sea faring people, their power, therefore, geographical spread to the Indian Ocean and beyond down to South-east Asia.

Thus, it may be stated that the Chola dynasty flourished under two powerful kings Rajaraja Chola I (985 – 1014 CE) and his son Rajendra Chola I (1014-1044 CE) who were responsible for imperialism of the empire. They performed effective and significant campaigns of warfare on Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of South East Asia particularly on the Sumatra region of the Srivijaya Empire. The Chola navy was instrumental in these expansions so as to have control over strategic sea routes that were strengthened with trade. In these regions, the Cholas made their mark as they impacted the structure and the subsequent creative abilities of structures there.

The Pallava Dynasty

Expansion-of-Indian-Territory-Outside-India-by-The-Pallava-Dynasty

Territorial expansion that also extended beyond the sub-continent was done by the Pallavas who were a ruling dynasty of parts of southern India during the 3rd-9th centuries. They are especially famous regarding their cultural and diplomatic relations with Southeast Asia. King Narasimhavarman II of the early eighth century invited Chinese and Southeast Asian kingdoms envoys to empower the trade relations.

But the impact of the Pallavas in Southeast Asia can be seen in architectural changes in this region, change of scripts and modification of religious practices. Many later temple complexes like the Angkor Wat in Cambodia developed by Khmer Empire bear strong resemblance to Pallava style, which demonstrate the southern Indian archetype of the great cultural exchanges patronized by the Pallavas.

The Gupta Empire

Expansion-of-Indian-Territory-Outside-India-by-The-Gupta-Dynasty
Extent of the Gupta Empire, 320-550 CE. Image CC Avantiputra via Worldhistory.org

The Gupta Empire also known as the Golden age of India started from the early 4th century to the last part of the 6th century. The Guptas were a major power in India and had many scientific, mathematical, astronomical, and artistic developments during their reign, Though the Guptas were not very active in foreign conquests or invasions outside of the Indian subcontinent, their civilization’s culture and learning spread throughout the other regions of the world.

Many foreign kings came to relations with the Gupta rulers in commercial as well as diplomatic alliances; these kings were from Southeast Asia, Central Asia and Europe. The contacts can be credited to popular Indian culture, science and religion at the time. The perceived civilization of learning degree and demonstration institutes like Nalanda University in India inspired the students from all over Asia, while the students took the Indian knowledge and practices to their regions on their return.

The Mughal Empire

Expansion-of-Indian-Territory-Outside-India-by-The-Mughal-Empire
Mughal Empire, 1707. Image – Wikimedia

The Mughal empire which dominated India right from the turn of the 16th century up to the mid 19th century also had territorial control outside of India. The ruling family of Mughals came from Central Asia and they married Indian culture and architecture with the one they brought with them.

Thus, Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) and his successors continued the policy of establishing diplomatic relations with many foreign countries, such as the Safavid Empire in Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and the European colonial nations. This made trading relations between the Mughals and these regions advantageous since availability of these items meant change of ideas ,art and technology that shaped the Indian subcontinent and the rest of the world.

The Maratha Empire

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MarathaEmpire 1759. Image – Wikimedia

The Maratha Empire that emerged in the seventeenth and the eighteenth century also waged territorial expansion outside India. Marathas were in search of fresh pastures as they challenged the Mughals when led by great personalities such as Shivaji and later the Peshwas dominated large parts of India.

They were also involved in naval raids and extended their domination on the western coastal areas of India and other parts as well. They sustained a strong naval force; they ensured they dominated the Arabian Sea and vital sea-lanes for commerce. Apart from spreading their dominance across the Indian subcontinent, the interactions of the Marathas with the European colonial powers even including the Portuguese and the British added more dominion of the Marathas beyond the Indian subcontinent.

Cultural and Religious Expansion

Expansion-of-Indian-Territory-Outside-India-Cultural-and-Religious-Expansion
Hinduism Expansion in Asia. Image – Wikimedia

Apart from military and political explorations; Indian rulers also contributed a major part of cultural and religious progression beyond the geographical boundaries of India. The religion of Buddhism spread in India and some other parts of Asia by missionaries while Hinduism spread across different parts of Asia through traders and settlers, followed by Islam.

In general, Buddhism was spread partly in Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and Central Asia with the help of Indian rulers and monks. In the ancient kingdoms of Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand Hinduism as well as Indian culture were globalized, especially the Ramayana and Mahabharata became a significant part of folk culture.

Conclusion

Indian rulers generated a lasting image on the areas they overpowered and this was not limited to the Indian subcontinent alone . The legacy of the rulers has been the Historical heritage of India starting from Maurya & Gupta empires and then from Chola & Pallava to Mughal & Maratha empires in the major parts of Asia. All these expansions were to some extent due to military strength, trade, diplomacy, and propagation of religion and culture. These expansions’ echo is still seen in modern society through the historical and cultural relations between India and other regions in Asia. A great body and huge variety of extensive endeavors to go beyond the territorial confines of India has been the vibrant history of the extent of the impact of Indian civilization in the worldly sphere.

Vijayanagara Literature: Diverse Literary Works of Vijayanagara Empire

By
Maitri Jha
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0

Introduction to Vijayanagara Empire

Introduction to Vijayanagara Empire and Vijayanagara Literature
Image – Wikimedia

Vijayanagara was a powerful empire from 1336 to 1646 CE in the South Indian region. It played a crucial role in shaping the culture and the literature of the area. The empire covered modern-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala. It was one of the most powerful kingdoms of its time military wise as well literary wise as well. The Vijayanagara Literature is a mix of languages. We get to see literary outputs in Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit and even Tamil. Since the rules of the Vijayanagar empire patronized poets, scholars and artists and were very fond of literature, it was well-flourished in the region. 

Vijayanagara Literature

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Poetic inscription in Kannada by a Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (c.1398) – Wikimedia

Vijayanagar Empire witnessed the peak development of literature under the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya. Majority of Kannada literature focused around Veershaivism and Vaishnavism and a bit of Jainism. There were in total three categories under which the majority of writings were categorized, 6 line poetry called Shatpadi, melodic pieces called Sangatya and 3 line poetry called Tripadi. The early Sangama emperors patronized Sringeri saints. Later on Suluva and Tuluva kings patronized Madhava saints of Udupi. Sangam rulers also patronized Advaita saints of Sringeri order, and one of the epic works of this time was Sayana’s Vedartha Prakash. 

Key points to remember

  • Krishnadevaraya – the third monarch of Tuluva dynasty, who ruled Vijayanagar empire from 1509-1529 
  • Veershaivism – a sect within the Shaivism fold of Hinduism, their name stands for firm worshippers of Shiva.  
  • Vaishnavism – A religious group in Hinduism that involves worshiping Vishnu. 
  • Jainism – An Indian religion that revolves around the belief of non-violence, originated 2,500 years ago. 
  • Shatpadi – Literally meaning “six lines,” it is a meter in Kannada prosody used in Kannada poetry where second, fourth and fifth lines are equal to each other. 
  • Sangatya – A type of composition in Kannada literature, a popular form of verse having four lines where first and third lines are equal and second and fourth lines are equal to each other. 
  • Tripadi – It is a form of poetry consisting of three lines.
  • Sringeri saints – These were the saints who belonged to Sringeri, a hill town. One of the famous Sringeri saints was Sri Adi Shankaracharya.  
  • Madhava saints – Madhava saints were the followers of Madhavacharya. 
  • Advaita saints – Saints and philosophers who followed the Advaita philosophy, emphasizing on non-duality of the individual and universal consciousness.
  • Sayana – He was a Sanskrit Mimamsa scholar from the Vijayanagar Empire during the 14th century. 
  • Vedartha Prakash – Vedarth Prakash is a book written by one of the scholars of the Vijayanagar Empire during the 14th century, Sayana. 

Multilingual Literary Environment

One of the crucial characteristics of Vijayanagara literature is its multilingual nature. Since the empire spanned over such a big area, many languages were accommodated in the section of literature in Vijayanagar. The rulers encouraged generation of literature in all the major languages, like Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Sanskrit. Each of these languages had their own themes and topics they covered, mostly religion, epics, philosophy or courtly poetry. 

Key points to remember

  • Tamil: A Dravidian language natively spoken by Tamil people of India, one of the oldest languages in the world.
  • Telugu: A language spoken in Southeastern India, one of the ancient languages of India. 
  • Sanskrit: An ancient language of India belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. 
  • Epics: A long poem derived from an ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic figures from history. 
  • Courtly poems: Poems written by highly skilled poets employed by the royal courts. 

Kannada Literature

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Prominent Poets of Vijayanagara Empire – Left Kumara Vyasa and Right, Chamarasa

Kannada writing saw a great development in the Vijayanagar literature period. The rulers were also patrons of Kannada literature, especially from the Sangam and Tuluva dynasties. The kings composed works in genres like epic poetry, historical narratives, religious treatises. 

During this time period, Kumar Vyasa, and Chamarasa were the well known poets of Kannada literature. Kumar Vyasa wrote the Mahabharata in Kannada through his work named Kathamanjari. His writings included vivid storytelling and moral-reflections which were loved by the locals who spoke Kannada. Chamarasa, composed Prabhulinga Leele, which was based on the life of saint Allama Prabhu, a patron saint of Lingayat.

Key points to remember

  • Sangam Dynasty: The founding dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, established in the early 14th century by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • Tuluva Dynasty:  The third ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, known for its most famous king, Krishnadevaraya.
  • Kumar Vyasa: A 15th-century Kannada poet best known for his epic poem “Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari,” a retelling of the Mahabharata.
  • Chamarasa: A 15th-century Kannada poet and saint, renowned for his work “Prabhulinga Leele,” which narrates the life of Allama Prabhu.
  • Kathamanjari: A famous work by Kumar Vyasa that narrates the Mahabharata in Kannada, also known as “Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari.”
  • Prabhulinga Leele: A 15th-century Kannada epic by Chamarasa that recounts the spiritual journey of Allama Prabhu.
  • Allama Prabhu: A 12th-century Lingayat saint-poet and philosopher, venerated for his vachanas (poetic expressions) that form part of Lingayat literature.
  • Lingayat: A religious sect in South India founded by Basava, advocating devotion to Lord Shiva and rejecting traditional caste systems and rituals.

Telugu Literature

Vijayanagara-Literature-Sri-Krishnadevaraya

Among other languages, Telugu also saw its flourish during the reign of Vijayanagara Empire, especially under the rule of Krishnadevaraya. His reign also marked a golden era for Telugu literature. Among other Telugu poets and writers, King Krishnadevaraya was himself a celebrated poet.  His contributions to the Vijayanagara literature are still respected. 

Among other works for Krishnadevaraya, Amuktamalyada is considered the most important contribution to the Telugu literature of Vijayanagara. It’s a poem which revolves around the story of Andal, a Tamil Vaishnav saint. It focuses on the themes of love, devotion and philosophy. Another poet, Allasani Peddana, one of the eight esteemed poets in the court of Krishnadevaraya, also contributed heavily to the VIjayanagara literature in Telugu language. His is also regarded as, Andhra Kavita Pitamaha i.e. Grandfather of Telugu poetry. His epic poem, Manucharitramu, tells a story on the creation of man. This work revolved around the theme of mythology and philosophy of human life. And how can we forget, Tenali Ramakrishna? Remembered for his wit and humor, he was also a celebrated poet and scholar of Vijayanagara literature. His works mostly included courtly humor, satire or wisdom. 

Key points to remember

  • Krishnadevaraya: A prominent 16th-century king of the Vijayanagara Empire, known for his military successes and patronage of arts and literature.
  • Amuktamalyada: A Telugu poetic work by Krishnadevaraya, describing the story of the Vaishnava saint Andal and her devotion to Lord Ranganatha.
  • Andal: A 9th-century Tamil poet-saint and one of the 12 Alvars, known for her devotion to Lord Vishnu and her compositions in praise of him.
  • Allasani Peddana: A prominent Telugu poet in Krishnadevaraya’s court, honored with the title “Andhra Kavita Pitamaha” (Father of Telugu Poetry).
  • Andhra Kavita Pitamaha: A title given to Allasani Peddana, acknowledging him as the father of Telugu poetry for his literary contributions.
  • Manucharitramu: A Telugu poetic work by Allasani Peddana, considered one of the greatest works of classical Telugu literature.
  • Tenali Ramakrishna: A 16th-century Telugu poet and jester in Krishnadevaraya’s court, known for his wit, humor, and cleverness.

Sanskrit Literature

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Guru Sri Vyasatirtha Image Source

Another which was heavily patronized under Vijayanagara literature was Sanskrit. Many significant works were produced in this language during this period. The themes usually revolved around religious philosophy, epics and commentaries on ancient texts. And additionally, the empire was also a major center for the studies of Vedant, mimamsa and many other branches of Hindu philosophy. Among the key Sanskrit scholars was Vyasatirtha, a prominent Dvaita philosopher. He was a crucial figure in the Madhav School of Vedant. His prominent works were Nyayamrita and Tatparya Chandrika. Sayana, another Sanskrit scholar, was known for his commentaries on Vedas. He was also a minister in the court of Vijayanagara. His works are considered crucial for Vedic studies, providing detailed explanation of ancient Vedic hymns and rituals. 

Key points to remember

  • Commentaries: Explanatory writings on ancient religious texts, offering insights and explanations to make the original texts understandable to the mass. 
  • Vedanta: A school of Hindu philosophy based on the teachings of the Upanishads, emphasizing the concepts of Brahman and Atman.
  • Mimamsa: An ancient Hindu philosophical system that focuses on the interpretation of the Vedas, particularly the rituals and the nature of dharma.
  • Vyasatirtha: A 16th-century Dvaita Vedanta philosopher and scholar, known for his extensive commentaries on Vedantic texts and his defense of dualism.
  • Nyayamrita: A famous philosophical work by Vyasatirtha, written as a critique of Advaita Vedanta, defending the Dvaita school of thought.
  • Tatparya Chandrika: A commentary by Vyasatirtha that clarifies and interprets the teachings of Madhvacharya, the founder of Dvaita Vedanta.
  • Sayana: A 14th-century scholar and commentator best known for his comprehensive commentaries on the Vedas, particularly the Rigveda.

Tamil Literature

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Tamil inscription of Krishnadevaraya, Severappoondi – Wikimedia

Tamil literature generally revolved around Bhakti and devotion . Though it was not as widely patronized as Telugu and Kannada it still contributed a lot to the Vijayanagara literature. The Bhakti movement, which had its origin in Tamil Nadu had a great impact on Tamil literature. The Bhakti movement continued to inspire the poets where they kept composing poems to devote and praise the gods such as, Vishnu, Murugan and Shiva. This poetry period, focused on the themes of complete surrender, spiritual union and divine love with the deity. 

Key Points to Remember

  • Bhakti movement: A medieval devotional movement in India that emphasized personal devotion to a deity over rituals and caste distinctions.
  • Vishnu: A principal Hindu deity, regarded as the preserver and protector of the universe, often worshiped in his incarnations like Rama and Krishna.
  • Shiva: A major Hindu god, known as the destroyer and transformer, representing both creation and destruction in the cosmic cycle.
  • Murugan: A Hindu deity worshiped primarily in South India, considered the god of war and the son of Shiva and Parvati.
  • Complete Surrender: The act of fully submitting oneself to the will of a deity, often seen as the highest form of devotion in certain spiritual traditions.
  • Spiritual Union: The merging of an individual soul with the divine, often regarded as the ultimate goal in many religious and mystical traditions.
  • Divine Love: A form of pure, unconditional love directed toward God or a higher spiritual power, central to devotional practices like Bhakti.

Religious Literature

Vijayanagara-Literature-Sri-Purandara-Dasa-and-Kanaka-Dasa
Left: Purandara Dasaru. Right: Kanaka Dasaru

Religion played a crucial role in the contribution to Vijayanagar literature. Along with the influence of Bhakti movement, much of the literary output revolved around Hinduism and its various deities. Even the empire’s rules were devout Hindu and many poets also composed their works surrounding and praising the gods like Parvati, Shiva and Vishnu. Religious works like Amuktmalyada, Prabhulinga Leele reflected great devotion and religiosity. Another movement, known as Haridas movement, a part of Bhakti tradition gave birth to composers like Purandaradasa and Kanakdasa, who wrote devotional songs i.e. keerthanas in Kannada. These works promoted virtues of simple and pious life while also expressing their devotion to Vishnu. 

Key points to remember

  • Hinduism: The oldest major world religion, characterized by a variety of beliefs, practices, and rituals, centered on concepts like dharma, karma, and devotion to various deities.
  • Parvati: A Hindu goddess, wife of Shiva, and mother of Ganesha and Kartikeya, representing fertility, love, and devotion.
  • Shiva: A principal Hindu deity, known as the destroyer and transformer, part of the holy trinity (Trimurti) along with Brahma and Vishnu.
  • Vishnu: A major Hindu god, known as the preserver of the universe, often depicted in his avatars like Rama and Krishna.
  • Purandaradasa: A 16th-century saint-composer and one of the founders of Carnatic music, known for his devotional songs .
  • Kanakadasa: A 16th-century poet, philosopher, and saint, also a key figure in the Bhakti movement, known for his devotional songs in Kannada.
  • Keerthanas: Devotional compositions, usually in praise of a deity, sung during worship, especially in the Carnatic music tradition.

Court poetry and Epic Narratives

Vijayanagara-Literature-Court-poetry-and-Epic-Narratives
Asthadiggajas in the Imperial court of Sri Krishnadevaraya. Wikimedia

Vijayanagar Empire and its court, was heavily influenced by literary creativity and activity. Since the rulers were also fond of such outputs poets were encouraged to produce more and more of such works. The poets often compose grand epic poems and court poetries celebrating the prestige of the kingdom and its rulers. The works sometimes revolved around Mahabharat and Ramayan but also had local politics and history in it. Poets like Nandi Timmana, and Bhattu Murti wrote works where they praised and honoured their empire’s kings and even extolled justice and the moral duty, i.e. virtues of dharma. 

Key points to remember

  • Epic poems: Long narrative poems that describe heroic deeds and events of historical or mythological significance.
  • Court Poetry: Poetry composed and performed in royal courts, often reflecting the culture, values, and politics of the time.
  • Mahabharat: An ancient Indian epic that narrates the story of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and Pandava princes.
  • Ramayan: An ancient Indian epic detailing the life and adventures of Prince Ram, his wife Sita, and his loyal companion Hanuman.
  • Nandi Timmana: A 15th-century Telugu poet known for his contributions to court poetry and his works in the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • Bhattu Murti: A 16th-century Kannada poet and scholar known for his literary works and contributions to Kannada literature and court poetry.
  • Dharma: A key concept in Hinduism and other Indian religions referring to the moral order, duty, and righteousness that individuals must follow in their lives.

Conclusion

The Vijayanagara literature became one of the greatest contributions to ancient literature. With its diversity in language and encouragement by the rulers of Vijayanagara, it gave birth to many great poets and their works. The works produced during this period later influenced a lot of poets and writers in Kannada, Telugu and other South Indian languages. And many works of this period are still celebrated and revered as one of the classics of the literary section. 

It has helped in preserving the rich culture and religious heritage of the region. This literary epitome also helped in shaping regional identities and preserving spiritual and philosophical beliefs in Hinduism. And still continues to inspire the poets, scholars and even readers. 

FAQs on Vijayanagara Literature

1.  What  was the literature of the Vijayanagara Empire?

It refers to the literature produced in the Vijayanagar Empire during the golden age of         literature; the works were written in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit.

2. What is the literature under Krishnadevaraya?

Krishnadevaraya’s famous composition is Amuktamalyada, an epic revolving around            Andal, a Vaishnav saint. His other works include Madalssa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya,      Jambavati Kalyana and Rajasmanjari, all in Sanskrit.

3. Who wrote Dharmanatha Purana?

Madhura, a court poet of King Harihara II and the King Deva Raya I wrote the                    Dharmanatha Purana.

4. What are the three books of Krishnadevaraya?

Krishnadevaraya wrote Jambavati Kalyana, Madalasa Charitam and Rasamajari.

5. Which languages flourished in Vijayanagar literature?

Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrti were the four languages which flourished during          this time period.

Few Lines on Vijayanagara Literature

  1. Vijayanagar Kings heavily patronized the work of literature which led to the golden time period of literature in South India.
  2. Almost all the kings were poets, among whom Krishnadevaraya’s Amuktamalyada is the most famous work of any of the kings of Vijayanagar.
  3. Vijayanagar literature consists of literary outputs in four languages, Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit and Tamil. 
  4. The works were divided into 3 categories, Shatpadi, Sangatya and Tripadi.
  5. Bhakti movement had its roots in Tamil nadu hence, many of the literary works have the influence of religion in them. 
  6. Tenali Ramakrishanan, popularly known as Tenalirama was one of the eight revered poets in the court of Krishnadevaraya, his works revolved around satire, wit, wisdom and court humor. 
  7. Vijayanagar was also a center for the study of various Hindu branches, hence, many sanskrit literature contributed to the study of Vedas.

Folk Dances of West Bengal – Immaculate Expressions of Bengali Culture

By
Rucha Katekar
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Folk Dances of West Bengal
Image/Wikimedia

Brimming with life and wonder, the eastern state of Bengal, is undoubtedly one of the most popular states of India. Mostly famous for its architecture and sweets (Oh, who wouldn’t love the mouth-watering Rasagullas and Sondesh!), the fact that Bengal also has a staggering plethora of various folk dances is yet undiscovered. Each folk dance of Bengal is prevalent in its respective region and is celebrated with extreme zeal and enthusiasm. The graceful hand movements and garments are a bonus for the spectator and any person who gets to witness these dances must count themselves fortunate. Most folk dances have their special meaning which can be difficult to decipher, therefore, here is a list of popular Folk Dances of West Bengal to understand them a little better:

1. Chhau Dance

Folk dances of West-Bengal, Chhau Dance
Image/Wikimedia

One of the most famous folk dances of India (was presented as a theme for Bengal in the 1995 Republic Day parade), Chhau is a unique folk dance that is performed during the Sun Festival. The main theme or idea revolving around this dance to spread the tales from Hindu classics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. The dancers are usually male. An integral part of Chhau masks. The masks reflect the character that the person is playing and are made with plenty of colors to make them attractive. The ‘masked dance’ is exciting to watch due to the immense show of martial arts, athletics, and heroics which leaves its spectators in awe. This dance acts as a bonding factor amidst the social and economic barriers created by man as any person irrespective of his caste and creed is welcome to perform.

2. Kirtan Dance

Folk-dances-of-West-Bengal, Kirtan-Dance
Image – Wikimedia

Introduced about 500 years ago, this ancient form of dance narrates the playfulness of Lord Krishna (or Vishnu). It is also a powerful bhakti-yoga that contains several elements of music, drama, suspense, etc. The dance is beautiful to watch with its participants moving in a circle, their hands raised, and singing hymns synchronized with the beat of drums. The practice of wandering from village to village in the wee hours of the day, to wake up the Sun God is common here. Although this dance form is slowly dying, many artists are struggling to revive the ray of hope that keeps it alive.

3. Gambhira Dance

Folk dances of West-Bengal, Gambhira Dance
Image/Caleidoscope

The Gambhira dance form celebrates the festivities, splendor, and vitality of Bengal. Initially done for agriculture, this Bengali folk dance soon took a devotional turn when it came to be performed by the worshippers of Goddess Shakti. The dance is done on the Gambhira song where there are two main performers – nana (grandfather) and nati (granddaughter). Accompanied by the chorus, the nana and nati begin a conversation about the everyday problems, challenges, social and economic situation, etc. These dialogues engage the audience due to their poetic verses. Therefore, the dance seems more of a documentary or a drama.

4. Kushan Dance

Folk-dances-of-West-Bengal, Kushan-Dance
Image Source

Since the Hindu classic Ramayana plays such a crucial role in every individual’s lives, it is no mystery that several people pay tribute to it in their way. The Kushan dance narrates the tale of Ramayana. The dance gets its name from ‘Kush’, the son of Sita. Here, the main artist who narrates the story is termed as mool. The performance is packed with commentaries, jokes, and references to keep the audience engrossed and well entertained. Since there are no women in this dance, men usually dress up as women and enact their part as well. The origins of this magical theatre dance can be traced back to the 15th century. The Koch dynasty ruled over West Bengal when this dance form came into existence. Using numerous instruments to create a musical sound, the narration is done in Bengali.

5. Brita Dance

Folk-dances-of-West-Bengal, Brita-Dance
Image Source

Also known as Vitra dance, it is one of the most important dances performed in Bengal. This folk dance is either done by women trying to appease the Goddess to grant them a child, or by survivors of a dangerous illness. Hence, it is performed within the walls of a temple. Most prevalent in the rural areas of Bengal, it conveys thankfulness or gratitude from a devotee towards the deity once their wish is granted. The wide range of colors and beautiful costumes make the dance visually pleasing and breathtaking.

6. Tusa Dance

Folk dances of West-Bengal, Tusu Dance
Image/Wikimedia

The reverberation of festive culture and rich art, Tusu folk dance marks the arrival of the season of Pausa. This dance form is celebrated as girls dance at the riverside every evening. On the auspicious day of Makar Sankranti, they worship the idol of Goddess Tusu. The beautiful dance is accompanied by chanting and offering rice to Goddess Tusu as the girls ask for a good groom. An aura of joy and happiness is created. Every person relishes in the duels and competitions which fill the air of festivities. Moreover, since the festival is also done to celebrate a good harvest, speculations suggest that ‘Tusu’ comes from the word ‘tush’ meaning rice bran in Bengali.

7. Baul Dance

Folk dances of West-Bengal, Baul-dance
Image – Mário Pires/Flickr

Bauls are spiritual minstrels residing in West Bengal and the Baul dance is a part of their religious culture. Popular in Burdwan and Birbhum in West Bengal, this dance comprises of an individual or groups of individuals twirling and singing Baul songs. The Iktara plays a significant role as they hold it in their right hand. These dances indicate the spirituality and mysticism practiced by the Bauls. Any person who witnesses the Baul dance is mesmerized by their alluring rituals and rites.

8. Dhali Dance

Folk-dances-of-West-Bengal, Dhali-dance
Image – AIKYATAN OFFICAL

India has had its history of strong warriors and men of extraordinary physical prowess, and when this prowess was showcased in a dance form, the folk dance of Dhali emerged. The dance is in the form of a battle or a duel, where two men using bamboo sticks as swords and cane as shields, fight each other. The musical beats and dynamic display of power provide a thrill to the audience as they cheer on the fighters. The performers are well built with impressive martial art skills.

9. Gaudiya Nritya

Folk-dances-of-West-Bengal, Gaudiya Nritya
Image – Wikimedia

People used to perform Gaudiya Nritya mainly in the temples and during festivity and related it to spirituality. This dance is described in several texts like Natyashastra and early and medieval literature of Bengal and, therefore, is considered as a classical dance form. But with the colonization by the British, change of the cultures of the people, the dance slowly died out. It took in part and parcel into the late 20th century to regain some of its performances through scholars and musicians who searched for its roots and tried to introduce the works in their classical and traditional manner. 

Gaudiya Nritya is an art that combines dance both instrumental and vocal music and dramatic expression. Here, movements, posture, footwork, nice curves, and flourishes, besides symbolic hand gestures (mudras) that signify particular significance are encompassed. Use of facial expressions called ‘Abhinaya’ is very important in portraying mood and narrating a story through a dance.  

Most commonly, the dance is executed for-such with instrumental music in particular with sitar, tabla, pakhawaj and flute being used for the basic beat and tune. The lyrics are usually drawn from devotional poetry, songs to the gods and goddesses, songs to and about Lord Krishna especially dominate the Bengali imagination. 

Takeaways

The immense joy of witnessing one of the folk dances of West Bengal knows no bounds. The rich culture of Bengal, well known for its variety and color makes us wonder how many more such fascinating traditions there are in the Indian culture that we are yet unaware of. These unexplored charms of India deserve to be recognized and acknowledged by us. After all, being a part of such elaborate beauty is something we all must be proud of, no?

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