Exploring the Most Expensive Paintings in India

August 21, 2024

Art is a universal subject. Even those who may not understand the finer nuances and technicalities of a painting can still appreciate its creativity. The flow of colours, the angles of the lines, the patterns, and designs are all intrinsic parts of a painting. However, the most important of all is the purpose that it serves and the story that it tells. Hence, art lovers see life and emotion in paintings. It is no surprise that incredible paintings are often auctioned and bought for prices as high as millions of dollars.

We often hear of paintings by Leonardo da Vinci and Vincent van Gogh being sold for huge sums of money. However, Indian painters are not far behind. With exceptional talent and a unique perception, many Indian painters have been recognized worldwide for their remarkable paintings. And their paintings have fetched fitting prices in countries all over the world. In this article, we explore the most expensive painting in India; just read on.

Purpose of Art

When an artist creates their work, the price of the piece is usually not the main focus. Artists are creative beings who express their thoughts and ideas on canvas through sketches and paints. However, some paintings are recognized by the world as the extraordinary work of a genius. Art auctions are one of the best ways to accurately evaluate and value a painting in terms of money.

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Today, art auctions are held both online and offline, yet the major auction houses remain renowned for their expertise in understanding paintings. In India, numerous art auctions, auction houses, and galleries specialize in selling modern and contemporary paintings.

The Great Indian Artists

There have been, and continue to be, several legendary Indian artists who have carved a niche for themselves in the world of art and painting. Many Indian paintings are auctioned in various countries by different auction houses worldwide. So, which is the most expensive painting by an Indian artist?

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Most Expensive Paintings by Indian artists

In recent times, paintings by Indian artists have made headlines due to the impressive price tags attached to them. Here are some of the most expensive works from renowned Indian artists.

VS Gaitonde – Untitled Painting

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-VS-Gaitonde-01 — Image Courtesy – Mutualart

Price – INR 42 Crore, February 24, 2022, Mumbai

V. S. Gaitonde’s untitled painting holds the record for being the most expensive painting by an Indian artist. Vasudeo S. Gaitonde was often described as a genius, yet he lived a relatively quiet life and was considered a recluse. He boldly pursued abstract painting at a time when it was not widely recognized or understood. This particular piece, painted in 1969, bears his signature in Hindi at the bottom.

Unlike many other popular Indian artists, V. S. Gaitonde did not achieve widespread fame during his lifetime. However, posthumously, many of his paintings have sold for crores. His untitled 1969 painting was auctioned for INR 42 crores by Pundole in Mumbai on February 24.

Amrita Sher-Gill – Ladies Enclosure & Self Portrait

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Amrita-Sher-Gill — Image Courtesy – DNA India

Price – INR 37.8 Crore & INR 17 Crore

Ladies Enclosure became the second most expensive painting sold by an Indian artist. Created in 1938, it was auctioned by Saffronart in 2021, fetching INR 37.8 crores. This makes it one of the highest-selling paintings by a woman painter.

Another of her works, Self-Portrait, was sold in 2015 at Sotheby’s in New York. Amrita Sher-Gill painted Ladies Enclosure during her teenage years. After studying art in Paris, she returned to India in 1934. Once back, her paintings often focused on women, particularly those in village settings

Tyeb Mehta – Kali and Untitled & Figure on Rickshaw

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Tyeb-Mehta — Image Courtesy – Tallengestore

Price – INR 25.4 Crore & INR 41.97 Crore

Tyeb Mehta wore many hats—he was a painter, filmmaker, and sculptor. Kali is one of his most famous paintings, sold online at Saffronart’s Milestone Auction in 2018. The painting depicts Goddess Kali with a red, gouged mouth, symbolizing the eternal struggle between good and evil.

In addition to Kali, another untitled painting depicting a man on a rickshaw was sold at Christie’s auction in London in 2011. Tyeb’s deep empathy for the poor and underprivileged is vividly expressed in this work.

Much of his work was influenced by the post-Independence era, particularly the violence and turmoil of that time. Several of Tyeb Mehta’s other paintings have also entered the million-dollar club, including Mahisasura and another untitled piece depicting a falling bull.

Francis Newton Souza – Birth

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Francis-Newton-Souza — Image Courtesy – DNA India

Price – 28 Crore

Birth was sold in 2015 at Christie’s auction in New York. Painted in 1955, this work is considered an important piece of art and was one of the earliest paintings Francis Newton Souza created after moving to London from India. The painting depicts the pain a mother endures while delivering a newborn, with an open window showcasing the London landscape.

Francis Newton Souza, born in Goa, often centered his works around themes of nudity, religion, and other subjects.

Raja Ravi Varma – Radha in The Moonlight

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Raja-Ravi-Varma — Image Courtesy – Pundoles

Price – 20 Crore

Mixing European and Indian styles, Raja Ravi Varma was one of the most popular Indian painters, renowned for depicting mythological figures. By making lithographs of his paintings accessible and affordable, he truly brought art to the masses. Radha in The Moonlight was sold in 2016 at the Pundole auction. This painting, created on oil canvas in 1890, depicts Radha as a fine representation of feminine qualities and virtues.

Syed Haider Raza – Saurashtra and La Terre

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Syed-Haider-Raza — Image Courtesy – Archerindia

Price – 16.42 Crore & 37.3 Crore

Saurashtra was sold in 2010 at a Christie’s auction in London. Painted by Syed Haider Raza in 1983, the work captures the colorful beauty of coastal Gujarat. Through geometric designs and the intrinsic beauty of natural landscapes and spiritualism, Raza presents Saurashtra as a synthesis of his diverse experiences. This painting was created during a period when Raza was influenced by the art of Paris and Abstract Expressionism, while also incorporating elements of Indian heritage.

Another painting, La Terre, was sold at Christie’s auction in New York in 2008. This abstract work is a riot of colors.

Akbar Padamsee – Greek Landscape

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Akbar-Padamsee — Image Courtesy – greekreporter

Price – 19.19 Crore

Greek Landscape depicts the clutter of buildings and city space. Through masterful strokes and various shades of grey, the painting evokes the sensation of viewing an urban cityscape from a window. This painting was sold in 2016 at an auction organized by Saffronart.

Padamsee was well known for his work with oil canvas, as well as digital prints and photography.

M F Hussain – Battle of Ganga and Jamuna

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-M-F-Hussain — Image Courtesy – Artnet

Price – 12 Crore

M. F. Husain needs no introduction; he was one of the most recognized Indian painters in recent times. The Battle of Ganga and Jamuna, painted in 1972, was sold at Christie’s auction in 2008. Inspired by mythology, the painting depicts the battle between good and evil. It is part of a series based on the Mahabharata, expressing the struggle between virtue and immorality through colors and canvas.

Arpita Singh – Wish Dreams

Most-Expensive-Paintings-in-India-by-Arpita-Singh — Image Courtesy – Artnet

Price – 9.6 Crore

Wish Dreams, an abstract figurative painting, was sold in 2010 at a Saffronart auction. Arpita took three years to complete this work, which remains one of her most significant creations. The painting consists of 16 canvas panels and is reminiscent of Kantha and Buddhist Thangka paintings. It features women alongside everyday objects such as cars, guns, and planes, showcasing the dreams and wishes of women in society.

Contemporary artists today also see their works appreciated and sold at high prices. Anish Kapoor’s untitled work sold for $1.5 million at Sotheby’s auction in Doha in 2009. Atul Dodiya’s paintings are often valued similarly to those of Francis Newton Souza and Tyeb Mehta; for instance, his Lodging in Somnath was sold for $465,818 in 1989. Bharti Kher’s The Skin Speaks a Language Not Its Own fetched $1.5 million. Other modern contemporary painters, including Raqib Shaw, Jitish Kallat, Ravinder Reddy, Subodh Gupta, and Shilpa Gupta, have also achieved significant sales.

Takeaway

Finally, Indian artists have made a significant mark on the global artistic map. There is no doubt that Indian paintings are highly sought after by major auction houses around the world. Their works are purchased both internationally and domestically. Thus, Indian artists have transcended boundaries with paintings that resonate across space and time.

Festivals of Jharkhand: A Journey through Tribal Celebrations

Gayathri Thatavarthi

August 19, 2024

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-00 — Image – Wikimedia

Jharkhand, tucked away quietly in central India, known for its lush green forests and natural beauty. These vibrant forests host a vast number of tribes known for their vibrant culture, traditions and handicrafts. The festivals of Jharkhand present the diversity of Jharkhand at its best, displaying the traditions of diverse tribes at their most joyful.

Diversity of Jharkhand

Jharkhand is a linguistically and ethnically diverse state. It houses thirty-two tribes and is at the crossroads of many linguistic paths. The state’s population speak more than fifteen different languages. The state of Jharkhand is truly one of the most diverse in India.

Festivals of Jharkhand

Jharkhand’s many different tribes celebrate festivals celebrating their traditions and culture. There are also many festivals common to the entirety of Jharkhand’s populace.

1. Karam/Jawa

Festivals of Jharkhand, Karam Dance — Image – Wikimedia

This is a harvest and fertility festival that is celebrated by many peoples throughout Jharkhand. In this festival, the people of certain tribes worship the Karam Devta. During the festival, people decorate and worship the branches of the Karam tree. Young, unmarried girls also fast and pray to the devta. This festival is celebrated by the Sadan (Khortha, Nagpuri, Kurmali-speaking ethnic group) and the tribal (Munda, Bhumij, and Oraon) people of Jharkhand.

2. Sarhul

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Sarhul — Image – Wikimedia

Sarhul is a spring festival celebrated in the village of Sarna in Jharkhand. This festival is believed to be the marriage ceremony of the earth and the sun. Surukh, Khaman and several communities celebrate it in the belief that the Gods would protect them. The festival is celebrated for three days till Chaitra Purnima. The Pahan or the priest overlooks the celebrations of Sarhul for a village. The priest ties a new, white cotton dhoti on the day of the Sarhul Pooja and oversees it for a village. In the Pooja, the Gods, known as Singobonga or Dharmesh or other names based on tribal affiliation, are offered a sacrifice of rooster, liquor, flowers, fruit and vermillion. The locals also perform dances around the Sal tree, while holding its flowers.

3. Jitiya

Jitiya is a widely celebrated festival in Central-Eastern India and Nepal. However, while Jitiya is usually celebrated for three days in the month of Ashvin from the seventh day to the ninth, it is celebrated for eight days in Jharkhand and is a very important festival. The festival mainly involves mothers fasting and performing various rituals for the well-being of their children. The way Jitiia is celebrated varies regionally, but in Jharkhand, the women fast for eight days and offer food to the elements and animals like jackals and vultures. On the eighth day, they sow a Jitia(sacred fig) plant in their courtyard. The last day is characterised by a lot of merry singing, dancing and storytelling, following which they immerse the jitia branches in water the next morning and garland their children.

4. Tusu Parab

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Tusu-Parab — Image – Prity Mahato/YT

Tusu Parab is a harvest festival celebrated mostly in the Southeastern regions of Jharkhand, in the Bundu, Tumar and Raidhi regions. It is celebrated in the winters, mostly by unmarried girls, who sing and dance beautiful folk songs together while making and offering a beautiful bamboo frame to water bodies. The simple beauty of the festival represents Jharkhand’s own.

5. Nawakhani

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Nawakhani — Image – Rucksack Guy/YT

Nawakhani is a festival of feasting celebrated by the Sadan and Kurukh people of Jharkhand. A new batch of rice, freshly harvested, is tried for the first time in this festival. A small sacrifice of chickens is made to the sun and a feast is made out of it. A variety of rice dishes, from Tapan, a fermented rice drink, to Chuda or rice flakes are made and consumed in the feast, alongside bread too.

6. Hal Punhya

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Hal-Punhya — Image – Abhishek Kumar Mahato/YT

Hal Punhya is celebrated by farmers in winters on the first day of the Magh month to commemorate the beginning of the ploughing of the fields. They plough and circumambulate the fields two and a half times in the morning and later celebrate with singing, dancing and feasting throughout the day.

7. Sohrai/Bandana

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Sohrai — Image – Congo One/YT

Sohrai is a regional festival widely celebrated in central India. It is a cattle festival celebrated by many tribes, including the Santals, Sadans, Kudmi and Oroans. It is celebrated on the Amavasya after Diwali in the Kartika masa, and is primarily a festival celebrating gratitude toward cattle and livestock. People fast throughout the day, cleaning and decorating homes and cattle sheds. Then, cattle are worshipped and a sacrifice of black chicken and tapan is offered in the evening. A feast is made and the entire family comes together in feasting and merry.

8. Rohini

Rohini is an important, but small festival celebrated in Jharkhand on the occasion of sowing the seeds for the season. It is a celebration of few quiet rituals with no singing and dancing.

9. Baha

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Baha-or-Baa-Parab — Image – Wikimedia

Baha or Baa Parab is a festival celebrated by the Santal, Munda and Bo tribes of Jharkhand.The tribe comes together to pray to Jaher Ara, the presiding deity for the festival by offering a pot full of Sal flowers and leaves. The village priest or naikey goes from door to door with this pot to bless everyone. The household then welcomes the priest by washing his feet and offering a feast. Following this, the entire community comes together for a day of feasting, singing, dancing and archery practice.

10. Jani Shikar

The festival of Jani Shikhar is celebrated by the womenfolk of the Kurukh community every twelve years, by wearing men’s attire and going for a long day’s hunt. This festival commemorates the valiant spirit of the Kurukh women who had driven away Muslim invaders while their men were drunk on the festival of Sarhul. The women had gone to war dressed as men and drove the invaders away, in each of the twelve attempts in twelve years.

11. Bhagta Parab

Festivals-of-Jharkhand-Bhagta-Parab — Image – santosh kumar/YT

Bhagta Parab is celebrated in the spring-summer time in the Tamar region of Jharkhand. The festival is to pay homage to Budha Baba and is one of the most visually astounding festivals of the state. In the morning, people fast, pray and pay homage to the local priest. In the evening, the spectacular celebrations begin with performances of the energetic Chhau dance. Gory visuals can also be seen as individuals pierce their bodies with hooks and hang up to forty feet up in the air and dance as an act of devotion.

Takeaway

The festivals of Jharkhand represent the rich culture and diversity of the state. A trip to Jharkhand during its many festivals would be an amazing experience as one gets to experience the finest of the state’s culture in a day!

Understanding CTA Filing: What You Need to Know

Cscope Staff

August 17, 2024

In today’s complex regulatory environment, businesses and individuals must navigate myriad compliance requirements. One of these important obligations is CTA filing (Corporate Transparency Act filing). Designed to increase transparency and combat illicit activities, CTA filing is a critical process for certain entities operating in the United States. Whether you’re a business owner, a corporate officer, or a compliance professional, understanding the nuances of boir, CTA filing is essential. In this blog, we’ll break down what CTA filing is, who needs to file, and why it’s so important.

What is CTA Filing?

The Corporate Transparency Act (CTA) is a U.S. federal law that requires certain companies to report beneficial ownership information to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN). The main objective of the CTA is to prevent money laundering, tax evasion, and other illegal activities by increasing transparency around who owns and controls companies in the United States.

CTA filing refers to submitting this beneficial ownership information to FinCEN. The information provided includes details about individuals who own or control 25% or more of a company or who exercise significant control over the company.

Why is CTA Filing Important?

CTA filing is crucial for several reasons:

Combating Financial Crimes: The primary purpose of the CTA is to prevent illegal activities like money laundering, terrorism financing, and tax evasion. By requiring companies to disclose their true owners, authorities can better track and prevent these crimes.
Regulatory Compliance: Failing to comply with CTA filing requirements can result in severe penalties, including fines and imprisonment. Ensuring that your company meets these obligations is essential for avoiding legal consequences.
Enhancing Corporate Transparency: The CTA promotes transparency in corporate structures, making it more difficult for individuals to hide their identities behind complex ownership arrangements. This transparency benefits not only regulators but also other businesses and the public.
Facilitating Due Diligence: For businesses involved in mergers, acquisitions, or partnerships, knowing the beneficial owners of a company can be crucial for risk assessment and decision-making. CTA filing provides a reliable source of ownership information.

Who Needs to File Under the CTA?

Not all companies are required to file under the CTA. The filing requirement generally applies to:

Corporations and LLCs: Most domestic corporations and limited liability companies (LLCs) in the U.S. are required to file beneficial ownership information under the CTA.
Foreign Entities: Foreign companies registered to do business in the U.S. must also comply with CTA filing requirements.

Exemptions:

Certain entities are exempt from CTA filing, including:

Publicly Traded Companies: Companies listed on major U.S. stock exchanges are exempt, as they are already subject to strict reporting requirements.
Banks and Credit Unions: Financial institutions are exempt due to their existing regulatory obligations.
Insurance Companies: Regulated insurance companies are not required to file.
Large Operating Companies: Companies with more than 20 full-time employees, over $5 million in revenue, and a physical presence in the U.S. may be exempt.

Conclusion

CTA filing is an essential compliance requirement for many businesses operating in the U.S. By understanding the filing requirements and ensuring timely submission, companies can avoid significant penalties and contribute to enhancing corporate transparency. If you’re unsure about whether your company needs to file under the CTA or need help with the filing process, consulting a legal or compliance professional is a wise step to ensure full compliance and avoid potential legal repercussions.

10 People to Remember this Independence Day in India

Tasneem Sariya

August 14, 2024

Indian Independence Day needs no introduction. The day is a poignant reminder of the struggles, triumphs, tribulations and determination of a nation as a whole. The freedom movement was a collective effort that witnessed the sacrifices and contributions of thousands of people. There were great leaders, heroic efforts and several unsung heroes. In many ways, the Indian Independence movement was one of its kind, for it was fuelled by people of different ages, class, castes, genders, philosophies, ranks, intelligence and valour.

Who should we remember on Independence Day?

The freedom struggle that lasted for centuries, culminated into independence through the tireless efforts of thousands of freedom fighters. There were the stalwarts and revolutionaries who led massive movements and catapulted them with inspiring slogans and speeches. There were hundreds who contributed in myriad direct and indirect ways, in big and small ways. And then there were many more whose contributions, perhaps, have been forgotten today.

Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, B R Ambedkar, Bahadur Shastri, Bhagat Singh, Rani of Jhansi and many more are names that children know on their fingertips. They have etched their names in the annals of history with their tremendous vision and implementations.

Yet, there are scores of individuals who have stood up with courage and determination and have been as instrumental in achieving independence. On the occasion of Independence Day let us try to bring to you ten people whose names may or may not be known, but who have in their unique and distinct way played an important role in the freedom struggle.

Birsa Munda

Brisa Munda is one of the earliest folk tribal Independence heroes. He led the tribal revolt against the British and is also credited with reviving traditional culture that had been relegated due to British influences. The British looked to change the tribal system to a feudal system. The Munda tribe called him the Father of Earth or Dharti Baba and his impact and legacy continues to live in folk songs and culture of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. He was arrested in 1900 and died while in jail.

Peer Ali Khan

A freedom fighter who fought for Indian Independence in the late 1800s, Peer Ali Khan was one of the earliest revolutionaries who was given capital punishment by the British. He bound books, but also distributed pamphlets and messages to the freedom fighters of the 1857 revolution. However, he was arrested and publicly hanged along with 14 other fighters by William Tayler.

Maatangini Haazra

Maatangini Haazra was known as Gandhi Buri, or ‘old lady Gandhi’. She was a staunch follower of the Mahatma and participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement and the protest against the Salt Act.

During the Quit Movement, she along with the other members of Congress, planned to take over police stations and government offices in the Medinipore district. In 1942, at 72 she marched with around six thousand protestors, most of whom were women, attempting to capture the Tamluk police station. She was shot multiple times by the British, however, she kept crying out ‘Vande Mataram’ every time she was shot. She moved forward with the tricolor in her hand until she breathed her last. She is thus, also referred to as the first martyr of the Quit India Movement.

Aruna Asif Ali

Aruna Asif Ali was a publisher, activist and educator. She married Asif Ali after which she became a part of the Indian National Congress. She was arrested multiple times and in 1932 in Tihar Jail she went on a hunger strike protesting against the poor treatment of political prisoners. In 1942 she hoisted the Congress flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai commencing the Quit India Movement. The police fired at the maidan and Aruna was referred to as the Queen of the 1942 Movement. She was also the editor along with Ram Manohar Lohia of Inquilab, a magazine run by the Congress Party.

Post-Independence she joined the Communist Party of India and in 1958 was elected mayor of Delhi. She passed away at the age of 87 and was awarded the Bharat Ratna after her death.

Khudiram Bose

Khudiram Bose was only 18 years when he was hanged to death. Born in Habibpur in West Bengal, Khudiram Bose was a part of the Anushilan Samiti. A revolutionary group, he along with Prafulla Chaki planned a bomb attack on Douglas H Kingsford. Kingsford was the magistrate of Calcutta and was known for his discriminatory and stern attitude towards freedom fighters.

Khudiram Bose in 1908 attacked the carriage that was supposedly carrying Kingsford. He threw the bomb at the carriage, however, Kingsford was not traveling in the same carriage and escaped. Prafulla Chaki committed suicide, but Khudiram Bose was arrested. He was led to the Muzaffarpur police station and was sentenced to death after a trial. According to reports, he was smiling when he was hanged, and large crowds threw flowers and garlands at his body.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Popularly known as Lokmanya, Bal Gangadhar Tilak coined and fought for total Swaraj. ‘Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it’, was one of his most famous slogans. He was arrested several times and joined the INC in 1890. His publication Kesari was an important mouthpiece for publishing stories and articles of freedom fighters and the oppressions by the British. However, he was considered as a radical fighter and did not agree with the moderate views of the INC. He founded the All India Home Rule League and focussed on it. Though his views on religion and caste are debatable, his zeal and work towards total independence cannot be ignored.

Bhikaji Cama

Bhikaji Cama was born in Mumbai and was involved in social work. However, she got plague and was shifted to Britain in 1902 for medical reasons. After a couple of years when she was about to leave for India she met Shymji Krishna Varma who was known to be a supporter of the Indian freedom struggle. Cama became the secretary of the British Committee of the Indian National Congress. She was asked to sign a statement saying she wouldn’t get involved in national activism if she wanted to return to India. She refused to sign the document and was relocated to Paris. Here she began publishing literature that supported the Indian national movement. She unfurled the Indian flag in Stuttgart, Germany and continued to do exemplary work even in exile. She remained in Europe till 1935, but after a massive paralysis stroke she was moved to India, where she passed away in nine months.

Chandra Shekhar Azad

Chandra Shekhar Sitaram Tiwari joined the HRA or Hindustan Republican Association where he met Ram Prasad Bismil. He was a part of the Kakori train robberies and the shooting of John Saunders to avenge the death of Lala Lajpath Rai. Along with Bhagat Singh and other members of the revolutionary group he planned various activities, including the assassination of James A Scot, the Superintendent of Police.

Azad was wanted by the British and it was in 1931 that someone tipped the police about his presence at Alfred Park. After cross firing, Azad had only one bullet left with which he shot himself.

Kanaklata Barua

Kanaklata Barua is fondly known as Birbala. She was an AISF leader and from a young age joined the Mrityu Bahini, a group from Assam. In 1942 the group decided to hoist the National Flag at a police station. The police warned the activists and openly fired at them when they did not stop. Barua held the tricolor and was shot dead. The flag was then taken over by Mukunda Kakoti who was also shot dead. Barua was only 17 years old at this time. To honor her, the Indian Coast Guard named the (FPV) or First Patrol Vessel as ICGS Kanak Lata Barua.

Tanguturi Prakasam

Tanguturi Prakasam was the Prime Minister of the Madras Presidency who then went on to become the first CM of Andhra Pradesh. He was known as the Andra Kesari or Lion of Andhra. A barrister and jurist by profession, he went to England to learn law. He was located at the Madras High Court after completing the course. He was a follower of Gandhi and started attending sessions of the Congress Party. He was the editor of Swarajya, a publication that he ran in English, Tamil and Telugu. He travelled across the country and participated in several movements, including the non-cooperation movement and protests against the Simon Commission.

The Independence Movement was a mosaic of multiple prowess that came together from all sides and corners to create an unparalleled and unmatched force. A force that had its own shares of ups and downs, but which in the end achieved what it set out to conquer.

Role of Women in the Independence Movement of India

Tasneem Sariya

August 14, 2024

India needs to dearly hold sacred its independence. For generations the cloak of the British Rule that had grappled, sometimes with force, sometimes with injustice the very essence of freedom that is the basic right of every individual citizen, was thrown over after many attempts. And hence the Independence of this nation was won in ways and by its people in unprecedented ways.

Men of honor had a significant role to play in the freedom struggle. However, surprisingly women too led from the front and emerged as game changers in the quest for independence.

India Before 1857

Women leaders made a significant mark of their valor and will as early as in the 18 century and set the stage for emphasizing that women were in no way willing to be relegated to the backdrop of the freedom struggle. Maharani Velu Nachiyar (1730 – 1796) bravely fought with the British army decades before the 1857 Revolt. She probably remains the only queen to have defeated the British army successfully. Gauri Parvati Bai who was queen of Travancore carried out reforms and emphasized on the need for education of girls thus in many ways helping women elevate from social and educational stigma.

1857 Revolt

Women-in-the-Independence-Movement-of-India-Rani-Lakshmi-Bai — Image – Wikimedia

However, the 1857 Revolt saw many stalwart women participants in the freedom struggle that have gone down as legends in the history of Indian Independence. Rani Lakshmi Bai dressed up as man and fought alongside her battalion bravely against the British army. Begum Hazrat Mahal refused to be bogged down by the Doctrine of Lapse and reclaimed Awadh from the British as well as reinstated her young son as king. However after the fall of Lucknow she had to flee to Nepal. Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh, Rani Tace Bai, Rani Jindan Kaur, Jhalkaribai and Uda Devi are other historical women who fought with the British army during the revolt. Besides their strength and courage at battles with the British armies, notable Indian women also paved way for social change. Savitri Bai Phule, the first female teacher in a first women school also opened a school for the untouchables and worked tireless for women rights. Helping her was Tarabai Shinde known for her published work Stri Purush Tulana considered as one of the first modern Indian feminist perspectives.

Early 19^th century

The early 19^th century saw the freedom struggle take full swing and women from across all castes and class took the baton of being equally responsible and dedicated to the national cause. Where men of stature, such as, Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose and Chandrasekhar Azad emerged as leaders in their own right, women stalwarts too matched them step to step. In fact, undoubtedly women freedom fighters have made significant contributions to the independence movement and in many ways the coordinated synchronization between the two has been an important landmark in the gaining of Indian independence.

Sarojini Naidu

Sarojini Naidu, also known as the Nightingale of India, was a notable poet and writer. She travelled throughout India from 1915 to 1918, giving lectures on social welfare, women’s empowerment and nationalism. She has also made women of India more aware and brought them to work and in the fight for the country from the kitchen. She also contributed and established the foundation, in 1917, of the Women India Association (WIA). She was president and an excellent leader in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha movement and leader at the front.

Annie Besant

Role-of-Women-in-the-Independence-Movement-of-India-Annie-Beasant — Annie Beasant via Wikimedia

Annie Besant was a notable British theosophist and reformer, and a supporter of Indian Independence. She was interested in Theosophy, a religious movement formed by Hindu concepts of karma and reincarnation in 1875. Besant was a member of the Theosophical Society and later the leader, she propagated their beliefs around the globe, particularly in India. Besant visited India initially in 1893 and afterwards settled there, participating in the nationalist struggle in India. In 1916, she founded the Indian Home Rule League, and became its president. She was also a leading member in the Indian National Congress. A social reformer, labor organizer and strike leader, was also actively involved in setting up schools and colleges to support educational activities.

Madam Cama

Madam Cama or Bhikaji Cama was an ardent freedom fighter who immensely contributed to the early years of the Indian battle for freedom and campaigned for women’s role in society. She has drawn attention to the Indian struggle as a passionate nationalist. Although she was exiled for 35 years, her quest for liberation did not leave a stone untouched. On August 22, 1907, Madam Bhikaji Cama became the first to hoist the Indian flag on foreign land in Stuttgart in Germany. She recalled the horrific effects of a famine which had smashed the Indian subcontinent in calling for human rights, equality and autonomy from Great Britain.

Kamala Nehru

Kamala Nehru joined the country’s fight for freedom with the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921. Once known as a quiet person, she emerged as a strong woman and broke all stereotypes in the Indian Independence struggle, uniting with her husband in the movement. She started a big protest, together with other women pioneers, against the shops in Allahabad selling alcohol and foreign fabric. When her husband Jawaharlal Nehru was imprisoned by British for delivering a speech deemed as ‘seditious’, she went in his place to deliver it. Although her husband was incarcerated months ago, Kamala Nehru maintained her fight for freedom and established a dispensary for injured warriors in Nehru’s mansion—Swaraj Bhawan. Together with other women volunteers, Durgabai and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, she also organised no-tax campaigns.

Vijay Lakshmi Pandit

Role-of-Women-in-the-Independence-Movement-of-India-07-Vijaya-Lakshmi-Pandit — Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit via speakingtigerbooks.com

Vijay Lakshmi Pandit, the first woman to become the president of the United Nations General Assembly had an illustrious career spanning over decades.She was among the few to revolutionise women’s role in national construction as a campaigner, minister, ambassador and diplomat which was then typically regarded as a male pursuit. In the British era, she was one of the first women cabinet ministers to demand for the Indian constituent assembly to frame a Constitution. When the resolution endorsed by the congress was tabled by the United Provinces in 1937, she did not coat any words and declared the 1935 Indian Government Act “wholly unsatisfactory.” In the years 1932-1933, 1940, and 1942-1943 in connection with civil disobedience campaigns, she was arrested and three times imprisoned by British people.

Aruna Asaf Ali

Aruna Asaf Ali played a pivotal role in the Quit India Movement unfurling the flag in Bombay to signify the start of the movement. She edited ‘Inquilab’ a monthly journal of the Indian National Congress and was awarded the highest civilian award the Bharat Ratna. During the Salt Satyagraha, Aruna Asaf Ali participated in a number of nonviolent riots. For this, the colonial authorities quickly arrested her.In 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin pact guaranteed that all individuals who were detained during the Salt Satyagraha would be released. However, it did not include Aruna Asaf Ali. Only a vigorous protest for her release by the other women freedom activists and Mahatma Gandhi helped her case. She was not involved in politics when she was released, but became an active member of the underground movement by the end of 1942.

Kalpana Dutta

Role-of-Women-in-the-Independence-Movement-of-India-07-Kalpana_Datta — Kalpana Dutt via Wikimedia

Kalpana Dutta joined the Republican Indian Army of Surya Sen in 1931 which had been engaged a year earlier in the Chittagong attack. For the revolutionaries, she used to build bombs and work as a courier agent. She had the duty of attacking a European club in Chittagong the same year, accompanied by Pritilata Waddedar. However, one week before the raid Kalpana was detained during a reception in the region. She went underground following her release on bail. In 1933, however, Kalpana was arrested and imprisoned for life. Mahatma Gandhi visited her in prison in the midst of public protests. Kalpana was released from prison six years later. Kalpana was dedicated to relief efforts during the Bengal famine and Bengal division in 1943 upon her release from prison. In 1940 she joined the Indian Communist Party and three years later married PC Joshi, a leading party leader. At 81 in Kolkata she died. The principles of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose had a great influence on her.

Kasturba Gandhi

Kasturba Gandhi worked with Mahatma Gandhi all through her life and was the leader of the Women’s Satyagraha. She always assisted her husband in almost all his movements. A key difficulty for Kasturba was her worsening health. In Borsad, Gujarat, she nevertheless took part in a Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) campaign. Over the years, Kasturba Gandhi has become part of the Indian Freedom movement and has been involved in campaigns and demonstrations of civil disobedience. Women from all over India were looking for inspiration at Kasturba and regularly asked her to organise marches and protests.Together with Gandhi and other freedom fighters, in 1942 Kasturba was arrested again for participating in the Quit India movement. The inspirative champion breathed her last in Aga Khan Palace in Pune where she had been imprisoned after a life of struggle and protest.

Usha Mehta

Usha Mehta who as a child participated in the ‘Simon Go Back’ movement, realized that her true calling was her nationalist spirit and broadcasting for the Congress Radio during the Quit India Movement. Usha Mehta said to her father that education had to wait and left her house to help the movement for freedom. No knowledge of her whereabouts was available for a fortnight. The British seemed to have been able to silence the Quit India campaign, as over 100,000 protesters were detained, or hidden, with important leaders. Now a secret radio station had been revived by Usha. In addition to her partners (the owners of Chicago Radio, the person supplying equipment and supplying technicians), Vithalbhai Jhaveri, Chandrakant Jhaveri, Babubhai Thakkar, and Nanka Motwani, Gandhi’s and the other major leaders messages were broadcasted here. Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyutrao Patwardhan and Purushottam Trikamdas gave riveting talks, while National Songs were also heard at the station.

When the British movement was hit and the vernacular newspapers were once again restricted, the sound waves of this underground radio connected the people, gave them hope and strength and encouraged them to continue the protests.

The list can go on, as one woman after the other made her individual as well as a collective mark on the independence movement. Sucheta Kriplani founder of the All India Mahila Congress, Raj Kumari Gupta who supplied the revolvers in the Kakori operation, Abadi Bano Begum who motivated crowds in Lucknow from behind her burqa, Lakshmi Sehgal who headed the Rani Jhansi regiment under Subhash Chandra Bose, Kamaladevi who actively participated in the Non-Corporation Movement, Salt Satyagraha as well as was an eminent theatre personality and promoted native handicrafts and arts, Kanaklata Barua who was shot while leading a procession bearing the Indian National Flag, Parbati Giri who worked dedicatedly for the welfare of orphans, Matangini Hazra who was shot thrice but continued to march with the National Congress Flag chanting Vande Mataram and many more were women of grit, dedication and honor.

However, as bright stars shone in the freedom struggle, there were also many nameless women who have in their own way contributed to the movement. The Swadeshi movement perhaps involved the most women who picketed foreign products. When men were arrested the women stepped up and fulfilled and finished their unfinished work. The numerous women who laid down their life at the Jallianwala Bagh, the umpteen women who silently wiped a tear in pride when the men of their family sacrificed their lives- Women as messengers, as supporters, as wives and mothers and as leaders were an integral part of the independence movement.

Our nation needs to remember that our freedom struggle would not quite be the same without women. Alas, it is not just memory and names that history teaches us. It is the path forward, the respect earned and the sheer belief that women are as much capable of standing up for themselves, of demanding freedom and willing to pay any price for it.

Culture of Mysuru: A City Profile of the Cultural Capital of Karnataka

Shiksha

August 13, 2024

Introduction

The city of Mysuru was the capital of the yesteryear imperial kingdom of Mysore, spanning large swathes of the state of Karnataka today. The city has witnessed great political intrigue, war, and power struggles- enough to rival web series on royalty today. However, this stage for political power struggles now stands as a sleepy, peaceful city; appearing in the papers mostly because of its greenery and high cleanliness ratings, a drastic contrast to its dramatic past. How Mysuru come to be the city that it is today? What is the cultural essence of the city today- the ‘vibe’- of Mysuru? Read on to find out!

Mysuru Historical Background

Mysore-Culture-Historical-Background — Image – getarchive.net

The history of Mysuru is inextricable with that of the Wodeyar dynasty, which has witnessed the rise and fall of imperial Mysuru.

The origins of the kingdom of Mysuru are mired in legend. It was said to have been founded by two brothers, Yaduraya and Krishnaraya, who were said to have been descendants of Lord Krishna’s sunken kingdom of Dwaraka. When there was a power vacuum in the region due to the death of the local ruler, Yaduraya married the local princess and became the founder of the famed Wodeyar(Lord in Kannada) dynasty.

The rise of the Wodeyars was overshadowed by the growth of the great Vijayanagara empire, under whom they ruled as vassals. However, as the great empire faced defeat and decline, especially after the historic loss at the Battle of Talikota in 1565, the vassal rulers across the empire began to assert their authority in their respective domains. This was true of Mysuru as well.

Map-of-Mysuru-duing-Wodeyar-Rule — Mysore kingdoms 1625 – Picryl.com

When the great empire fell, the Wodeyars, like many others, grabbed their chance- conquering the surrounding areas and consolidating their power. Gradually, Mysuru became a force to reckon with, though it was juggled between several powers as European colonists became key political players in the heartlands of India. Towards the latter half of the eighteenth century, the kingdom was facing great political turmoil, while being juggled between the ‘nawabs’ of Mysuru(Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan), the Wodeyars and the Europeans. Eventually, it continued to be ruled by the Wodeyars, albeit as vassals, in all practicality, in a subsidiary alliance with the British.

After independence, the Wodeyar king became the rajapramukh(governor, in all practical sense) of the Mysore state and then the Madras state. However, since 1971, their royal status and its privileges have been abolished, officially. Nevertheless, the Wodeyars continue to live on in their treasured city.

Festivals Celebrated in Mysuru

Culture of Mysore-Mysore-Dasara — Image – Ruchitha M

Mysuru has many unique cultural celebrations of its own- Mysuru Dasara being the grandest and most popular festival. It is a ten day festival of triumph of good over evil, and is celebrated in the signature Wodeyar style. It involves such elements as ceremonial processions, folk songs and dances, and other related activities with cultural connotations. The Jumbo Savari is the most interesting part of the festival where several elephants adorned with gold and jewellery roam through the city attracting tourists from across the globe.

Another important festival is Ugadi, the Kannada New Year. Annual festival fairs like the Vairamudi Festival at the Cheluvanarayana Swamy Temple in Melkote also serve as occasions for people from across the region to gather and celebrate.

Mysuru Cuisine

The cuisine of Mysuru is as colourful as the culture of this region. The city is famous for its diverse selection of vegetarian food. Many culinary masterpieces originate from the secrets of the kitchens of the Wodeyars, each with their own delightful origin stories. These include the much-loved Mysore Pak, a fudgy, melt-in the mouth sweet dish made of gram flour, sugar, and ghee, the Mysore Masala Dosa, known for its distinct spicy potato filling, and the Bisi Bele Bath, a spicy and flavourful rice and lentil dish. Meals are traditionally served in banana leaves, much like other southern regions.

Mysuru Arts and Crafts

Mysore-Culture-Mysore-painting — Goddess Saraswati, Mysore painting, 19th century. National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. Image – Wikimedia

Mysore is known for its art and craft works almost all of which are traditional and inherited from one generation to the other. The Mysore school of painting is one of forms of classical painting of South India, recognisable from the usage of muted, gentle colours, golden leaves and fine and delicate strokes in their portrayal of themes from Hindu mythology.

The sandalwood of Karnataka is popular across the world for its intoxicating aroma. The luxuriant heartwood is utilised in a number of ways- taking the form of oil, carvings or powder, according to one’s fancy. Mysore is also famous for the iconic Mysuru silk sarees produced in and around the city, famous for their smooth, crepe-like texture and flow.

Music and Dance of Mysuru

Music-and-Dance-of-Mysore — A concert in progress at the Mysore Palace, Wikimedia

Music and dance are an inseparable part of the culture of Mysuru. The city has been an important centre for classical music, especially Carnatic music. The Wodeyars were great patrons of all forms of performative arts, as a result of which the city grew to be a powerhouse of the same, and remains one even today. The city has produced several prominent musicians like Veene Sheshanna, Mysore Vasudevachar and Mysore Chowdiah. Kacheris and music festivals are a part of the cultural fabric of the city, attracting performers and music lovers from all around the country and the world.

Bharatanatyam and Kathak are also the most popular classical dance forms in the city- a result of the complex and diverse history of the city. The dance forms are performed during festive seasons and other cultural programmes. Local folk dances of the state, the most notable of these being Dollu Kunitha and Kamsale, are an important part of temple celebrations.

Religion in Mysuru

The city of Mysuru has witnessed many imperial efforts, spearheaded by people belonging to different religious and cultural backgrounds. However, the region, with thousands of years of Hindu heritage, has remained dominantly Hindu in its spirit. The city houses a Hindu majority, comprising about seventy-percent of the population, alongside a Muslim minority of around twenty-five percent, and very small Christian and Jain populations. People of all religious backgrounds live together harmoniously in the city.

Languages in Mysuru

The city of Mysuru hosts native speakers of a wide range of languages, owing to both its rich history and ever-evolving present. Kannada, spoken by sixty percent of the population, is the most spoken language in the city, followed by Urdu, spoken by the large Muslim minority- a mark of the city’s brief times under Islamic rule. The long-term presence of several major government industries and services, alongside the recent emergence of the IT industry in and around Mysuru has resulted in a very diverse linguistic demographic, with native speakers of Telugu, Hindi, Malayalam, Marathi and Tamil speckled across the city.

Literature in Mysuru

The classical artistic leaning of the culture of Mysuru has helped produce a number of writers and poets from the region. Famous literary personalities from Mysore are Kuvempu, the first Kannadiga to be awarded the Jnanpith Award and R. K Narayan, whose Malgudi tales have revelled many generations across India.

The University of Mysore has also contributed tremendously to the fields of local literature as well as education. Originally, the university, though just an institute of higher learning, has become a literary and cultural hub- with regular literature festivals and programmes now a regular feature in the University.

The numerous libraries as well as bookstores that are spread throughout the city subtly continue fostering the literary and cultural traditions of the city- housing several works on the history and culture of the city apart from the usual features.

Architecture of Mysuru

The Architectural landscape of Mysuru is a diverse blend of buildings built in European, Indo-Islamic, as well as traditional Indian styles, as a visual reminder of its varied history.

The Amba Vilas palace, the grand attraction of Mysuru, and the former residence of the Wadiyars, is the epitome of the Indo-Saracenic style- with the unmistakably Islamic cusped arches, and bulbous domes- almost a deceptive facade- beyond which distinctly South Indian colonnaded court yards, and walls sculpted with iconography of the Hindu pantheon in the Indian style greet the eyes.

There are many historic buildings built in the several distinctly European styles- including the famous Krishnarajendra hospital, the St Philomena church and the Lalith Mahal palace- built in the Greco-Roman, neo-Gothic and classical European styles respectively- standing as witnesses to the city’s tumultuous past with the Europeans.

Conclusion

The city of Mysuru has borne witness to a number of historic events in the past, and the sleepy city now stands at the cusp of an industrial and cultural revolution, as Karnataka transforms into an industrial hub. The wave of globalisation and modernisation has brought the IT industry, and with it, the hopes and dreams of young men and women across the country into this classical culture capital. How this would transform the city’s religious, cultural and economic landscape can only be speculated.

Vibrant Batto Bai Dolls: A Madhya Pradesh Art

Shiksha

August 12, 2024

Batto-Bai-Dolls-01 — Image Courtesy – Indostatecraft.com

Introduction

The center of India is Madhya Pradesh, a state with a wonderful blend of cultural heritage and traditions and provisions that bring forth new ways of art and creativity. Around the variegated forms of folk art that are well preserved in this region, Batto Bai dolls are iconic artistic symbols of craftsmanship and the rich cultural background. Derived from the dusty soil of Madhya Pradesh, the region of these dolls is not merely toys; they are the manifestation of custom, story-telling, and artistic greatness as well. In this exploration, we follow the life journey of Batto Bai doll, beginning with the study of the doll’s birth, followed by the examination of the doll’s craftsmanship, investigating the doll’s cultural roles, and finally, highlighting what these dolls imply vis-à-vis the rich heritage of Madhya Pradesh.

Origins of Batto Bai Dolls

The ancient tradition of making Batto Bai dolls comes from the popular craft culture in the village life of Madhya Pradesh. “Batto Bai ” is an evocative name; “Batto” implying a wooden doll and the latter, “Bai”, being similar to “bai”, the local endearing day to day language. These data have been recorded by experienced artisans for years, with the techniques passed down from master to apprentice within families and societies.

Materials selection for Batto Bai doll making depicts the conservation and endurance of artisans in the region. Demerits are the negative points associated with marketing mix variables. An advertising campaign with an extended exposure time is likely to have high recall. For generating frequent activation, a brand may have to deal with high media budgets to repeat their spot many times. The lumber used is sourced primarily from a per surrounding neighborhood to the degree that it is sometimes even cut from forest that have been well-managed, thus promoting harmony between the crafts and nature.

Craftsmanship of Batto Bai Dolls

The skill and labor involved in creation of Batto Bai dolls is a painstakingly slow process which demands a lot of work, proficiency and talent. A campaign has started since then, and organizers have put in place screening of wood quality and suitability. Having been selected, the timber undergoes the transformation into the desired shapes and forms by utilizing primitive hand tools such as chisels, knives, and gouges. The artisans insert a special feature to give each doll a unique mannerism. It could be a woman who is transporting water pots, or a musician playing the local instrument; or an animal like an elephant or a horse itself. Created a facade of rural living in Madhya Pradesh with their excellent precision in carving of faces, clothing, and accessories.

Finally, after the sculpting process, the dolls get through the most delicate phase of their work-painting. Plant-based, mineral or insects- colored dyes are extracted to create the subtle, and extravagant, color that makes the dolls alive. The artisans make use of the old-style way of painting. Sometimes, they paint carefully the design and patterns by employing paint brushes made of natural fibers. Each stroke with the brush is a significance of what’s going on in the head of the craftsman, and of his precision and carefulness, that are ultimately leading to figures which are not only visually stunning but also rich in symbolism.

Cultural Significance of Batto Bai Dolls

The Batto Bai Dolls retain a lot of solemnity in the traditional weave of Madhya Pradesh, telling the stories of a fading world in every gramme they constitute. Each doll has its own narrative, be it an illustration of routine life, manifestation of fables or legends, or a figurine symbolizing festive events. Such a story is a source of inheritance which is passed down from generations deepening the roots of oral traditions of this region and hence the heritage of Madhya Pradesh longs for these lifetimes.

Besides the character of the storyteller, Batto Bai dolls provided religious and ritualical importance. On special occasions like religious services, festivals, and rituals, they are a symbolic function by which they are used to obtain blessings and chase away ghosts. These dolls are considered as precious and they are provided with deep spiritual connection which make the sculptures and its makers one.

Challenges and Revival Efforts

Because of their cultural and economic eminence, batto bais are not an exemption to modern era’s disadvantages, though. The factors of quick urbanization, growing consumer demands, and competition with factory produced goods render local crafts including doll-making vulnerable. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the mindset of the consumers is another important aspect of fair trade which becomes the cause of additional challenges. This pandemic has further aggravated these challenges as it not just affected the system of supply chains but it also led to the decrease of the market opportunities for artisans.

As a result of these problems, different organizations and initiatives have come into effect to be able to enhance the life and preserve the dolls. NGOs, government departments, and other local initiatives team up offering their assistance to the artisans with training materials and markets, so that they can keep on doing their craft and techniques of living.

Conclusion

In the end, the Batto Bai doll is not merely an eye-catching artwork-it is the embodiment of tradition, stories and cultural values. The Australian women dolls take inspiration from the bucolic farming villages of Madhya Pradesh. Their appearance gives a light to the multifaceted culture of the place and the dexterity of the artisans. Careful construction and high quality, Batto Bai dolls immerse you with every detail of agricultural life in MP, symbolizing its art and creativity all over the world.

But in the end, the resiliency and the resourcefulness, in the person of the artisans who make them, are the prime factors that enable the dolls to stand today despite all the daunting challenges posed by the modern times. With these measures, the Madhya Pradesh dolls will be assured of sustaining their artistic craft and cultural significance. These gorgeous dolls will remain a symbol of their beautiful heritage for the next generations. While we rejoice the past glory of Batto Bai dolls, we also see that keeping traditional crafts alive and ensuring the artisans are supported can be a very meaningful part of the preservation of the past.

A Journey Through the Official Languages of India

Cscope Staff

August 9, 2024

Introduction

Humans employ an ordered system of communication called language, which is made up of words, sounds, and grammar. It makes it possible to communicate ideas, feelings, and knowledge. Displacement (talking about things not present), productivity (infinite sentence development from finite rules), inconsistency (no inherent connection between words and their meanings), oral tradition (passed down through generations), and duality of patterning (sounds forming meaningful units) are the characteristics of language, which can be spoken, written, or signed. It supports thinking, identity expression, social engagement, interaction, and behavior control. Let’s see some official languages of India to know more about India.

Suggested Read: Oldest Indian Languages That Survived For Ages

English Language in India

During British colonial control, which lasted from the 18th century until 1947, English was brought to India. English evolved into the official language of the judiciary, education, and administration throughout this time.
Hindi and English were designated as the official languages of India upon its independence in 1947. Hindi was supposed to progressively take the place of English, but because of linguistic variety in India and opposition from states that do not speak Hindi, English continued to be the official language. Both Hindi and English are acknowledged by the Indian Constitution as the official languages of the national government. In higher education, the legal field, and government, English is widely used. Hindi and English may both still be used for official reasons according to the Official Languages Act of 1963. Particularly in places where Hindi is not the official language, English is utilized in legislative sessions, the courts, and communications between the federal government and state governments. In the multilingual nation, it acts as a connecting language. In many Indian schools, colleges, and universities, English is the language of instruction. It’s frequently regarded as essential to social mobility and improved professional prospects. English language proficiency is highly regarded in many professional domains.

In India, English is the language of choice for corporate settings, technology, and business. English is the primary language used for international business communication in the nation’s booming outsourcing and IT sectors.
Indian media, entertainment, and literature have all been impacted by English. Numerous Indian authors, like Salman Rushdie and Arundhati Roy, have received praise from all around the world for their English-language writings.
English is a vital language for business, education, and administration in India because of its colonial past and current significance in international communication.

Furthermore, Hindi, which is written in the Devanagari script, is the official language of the central government, whereas English is frequently used for official and administrative reasons at the national level.

Official languages of India

In accordance with the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, there are 22 official languages in India. Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu are among them. Hindi, which is written in the Devanagari script, is the official language of the central government; English is also used for official and administrative reasons at the national level.

Along with Hindi and English, there are other scheduled languages of India

According to the Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule, 22 languages are recognized as official in India. These dialects are:

1. Hindi

The Indo-Aryan language of Hindi is mainly spoken in India. Hindi is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch.
In India, it is the language that is most often spoken, especially in the north and center of the nation. It is used as a lingua franca for communication and is spoken in many Indian states. The Devanagari script, also used for Sanskrit, Marathi, Nepali, and a few other languages, is used to write Hindi. Hindi literature has a long history and includes both contemporary prose and poetry as well as epics and classical poetry. Poets like Tulsidas, Kabir, and Surdas as well as contemporary authors like Premchand and Harivansh Rai Bachchan are notable individuals. The Hindi language and culture are essential components of Indian culture, including dance styles like Kathak, music like Bollywood, festivals like Diwali and Holi, and customs all over the nation. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Hindi as one of the official languages and as the official language of the country’s central administration. At the national level, it is utilized in literature, journalism, education, and government administration.
Hindi is an essential language for bridging India’s many linguistic and cultural groups and acts as a unifying factor for the nation’s diversified society.

2. Assamese

One of India’s official languages, Assamese is mostly spoken in the northeastern regions of Assam. It is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch. mostly spoken in northeastern India, in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Meghalaya. Written in the Brahmi script’s ancestor, the Assamese script. With a rich literary history that dates back to the 13th century, Assamese literature has been greatly influenced by the works of renowned poets and writers. The Assamese language and culture are deeply entwined, impacting the region’s artistic, musical, dancing, and religious practices.
acknowledged as an official language by the Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule, which makes it easier for people to utilize it in the media, administration, education, and literary works. Different dialects of Assamese are spoken in different parts of the country, reflecting differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. Millions of people in northeastern India communicate in Assamese, which is vital to the preservation and advancement of the Assamese people’s cultural identity.

3. Bengali

Bengali, sometimes referred to as Bangla, is the official language of West Bengal and Tripura as well as one of India’s official languages. mostly spoken in sections of Assam and Jharkhand, as well as in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura. Bangladesh also recognizes it as its official language. Written in the Bengali alphabet, which is comparable to the Hindi-language Devanagari script and is derived from the Brahmi script. With contributions from poets, writers, and philosophers like Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Bengali has a rich literary history that spans more than a millennium. Bengali literature, music (particularly Rabindra Sangeet), art, and festivals like Durga Puja and Poila Boishakh are all greatly influenced by the language and culture of Bengal.The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule recognizes it as an official language, guaranteeing its usage in the government, media, education, and literary arts. Different dialects of Bengali are spoken in different parts of the country, and they differ in vocabulary, pronunciation, and occasionally grammar. A major cultural and historical force in Bangladesh and India, Bengali language contributes to the rich diversity of South Asian languages and cultures.

4. Bodo

The Bodo people are an ethnic group that mainly resides in the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) in Assam, India, as well as some areas of nearby states. They speak the Bodo language. Bodo is a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family’s Tibeto-Burman branch. The Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) of Assam and its surrounding regions in states like West Bengal, Meghalaya, and Nagaland are where it is primarily spoken. The Devanagari script, which is also used to write Hindi and Marathi, is used to write the Bodo language. The Bodo people have a rich cultural history that includes festivals like Bwisagu, music, and traditional dances like Bagumumba. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which identifies the languages the government is dedicated to advancing and nurturing, recognizes Bodo as one of the official languages of Assam. Bodo is spoken in various regional dialects, each with its own unique vocabulary, grammar, and accent. The Bodo language is an important part of India’s linguistic variety and the cultural identity and legacy of the Bodo population in Assam.

5. Dogri

The Dogra community speaks Dogri, a language that is predominantly spoken in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, India, as well as in certain areas of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Dogri is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch. The Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, which includes places like Jammu city, Doda, Kathua, Udhampur, and portions of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, is where it is primarily spoken. Dogri is normally written in the Takri script, but for administrative and historical reasons, it is now frequently written in the Devanagari script. Poets and authors have made significant contributions to the cultural identity of Dogri through their rich literary heritage spanning several centuries. It is renowned for its folk tunes, poetry, and artistic manifestations. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution recognizes Dogri as one of the official languages of Jammu and Kashmir, guaranteeing its usage in the government, media, education, and literary domains.
Different dialects of Dogri are spoken in different parts of the country, and they differ in vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation.
In the northern parts of India, the Dogra community’s legacy is preserved and promoted in large part through the Dogri language and culture.

6. Gujarati

Gujarati is a language that is mostly spoken in many communities all over the world as well as in the Indian state of Gujarat. Gujarati is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch. The western Indian state of Gujarat, the union territories of Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and many communities in Maharashtra and Rajasthan are the main locations where it is spoken. The Gujarati script, an abugida (alphasyllabary) adapted from the Devanagari script, is used to write Gujarati. Gujarati has a long and illustrious literary history that dates back to the 12th century. Its cultural legacy has been greatly influenced by poetry and prose from this era. It boasts a thriving tradition of contemporary writing, folk literature, and bhajans (devotional songs). Gujarati food, music, dance (like Garba and Dandiya Raas), festivals (like Navratri), and arts are intimately linked to the Gujarati language and culture.
The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution recognizes Gujarati as one of the official languages of the Indian state of Gujarat and mandates its use in the government, media, education, and literary arts. The Gujarati diaspora has contributed to the expansion of the Gujarati language and culture worldwide, making it widely known and used, particularly in Indian populations living outside.

7. Kannada

Said primarily in the southern Indian state of Karnataka, Kannada is a Dravidian language. Kannada is a member of the Dravidian language family, which also includes Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu. The state of Karnataka is where it is most widely spoken, along with some areas of other states like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. The Kannada script, an abugida (alphasyllabary) developed from the ancient Brahmi script, is used to write Kannada. With ancient poetry, prose, and drama dating back more than a millennium, Kannada boasts a thriving literary heritage. Classical Kannada literature includes works such as “Kavirajamarga,” and contemporary Kannada literature has given rise to well-known writers like Bendre, Ananthamurthy, and Kuvempu. Karnataka’s language and culture are profoundly ingrained in the region’s history, impacting traditional arts, festivals, dances (such as Yakshagana and Dollu Kunitha), classical and folk music, and traditional arts. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Kannada as one of the official languages, and it is the official language of the state of Karnataka. Within the state, it is utilized in literature, journalism, education, and government administration. The Kannada language and culture add significantly to India’s linguistic diversity while also protecting and advancing Karnataka’s cultural identity.

8. Kashmiri

The language known as Kashmiri is mainly spoken in the Kashmir Valley, which is located in the northern Indian union region of Jammu and Kashmir. As a member of the wider Indo-European language family, Kashmiri is related to the Dardic branch of Indo-Aryan languages. The Kashmir Valley, which includes places like Srinagar, Anantnag, Baramulla, and other regions of Jammu and Kashmir, is where it is primarily spoken. Communities of Kashmiri immigrants in various regions of India and beyond also speak it. The Sharada script, an antiquated script associated with Brahmi, was formerly used by Kashmiris. But of days, most Kashmiri writing is done in the Nasaliq Perso-Arabic script. Kashmiri literature boasts a rich legacy spanning multiple centuries, featuring the works of ancient poets such as Lal Ded and Habba Khatoon. Prominent authors of plays, short tales, and poetry have contributed to modern Kashmiri literature. The language and culture of Kashmir are fundamental to the region’s cultural identity; they have influenced traditional arts and crafts, dancing styles, music (such as Rouf and Hafiza), and Sufiana Kalam and Chakri. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Kashmiri as one of the official languages. In Jammu and Kashmir, it is utilized in literature, media, education, and government administration. The Kashmiri language and culture are an integral element of India’s rich linguistic and cultural mosaic and are crucial to the preservation and promotion of the Kashmir Valley’s cultural legacy.

9. Konkani

The majority of speakers of Konkani are found in the western Indian state of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Kerala. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Konkani. Goan Konkani, the name for the coastal regions of Goa, as well as portions of Karnataka (the Konkani-speaking belt of Uttara Kannada and Udupi districts), Maharashtra (the coastal areas), and Kerala (the southern districts) are the main places where it is spoken. Several scripts are used to write Konkani, depending on the community and area. Devanagari script (Devanagari Konkani) and Roman script (Roman Konkani). Malayalam script (Konkani) and Kannada script (Kannada Konkani). Modern literature, poetry from the Middle Ages, and classical literature are all part of Konkani’s rich literary heritage. Notable playwrights, poets, and writers have come from it, adding to its cultural legacy. The traditions, rituals, and festivals of the Konkani-speaking populations are intimately linked to the Konkani language and culture. These include the music (such as folk songs and Mangalorean Catholic music), dance (such as Dekhnni and Fugdi), and culinary habits. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Konkani as one of the official languages. In the areas where it is spoken, it is utilized in literature, media, education, and government administration. The Konkani language and culture add to the multicultural fabric of India’s linguistic landscape by reflecting the richness and diversity of the Konkani-speaking populations spread across several states.

10. Maithili

The majority of people who speak maithili are from eastern India, especially from the state of Bihar and its surrounding territories. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Maithili. The Mithila region of Bihar, which includes districts like Darbhanga, Madhubani, and Sitamarhi, as well as portions of Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Nepal, is where it is primarily spoken. The Maithil diaspora speaks it both overseas and in other regions of India. Traditionally, Maithili was written in the now-rarely-used Mithilakshar script, which is evolved from Brahmi. These days, most Maithili writing is done in the Devanagari script. Classical poems and prose from antiquity can be found in Maithili’s rich literary heritage. One well-known Maithili poet is Vidyapati Thakur, who is well-known for his works in both Sanskrit and Maithili. The traditions, rituals, and celebrations of the Maithil community are intimately linked to the Maithil language and culture. This includes dancing, music, and cultural practices such as Maithili folk ballads. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists maithili as one of the official languages. In Bihar and other areas where it is spoken, it is utilized in literature, media, education, and government administration. By maintaining the rich literary and linguistic traditions of the Maithil population, the Maithil language and culture greatly add to India’s cultural richness.

11. Malayalam

The Dravidian language of Malayalam is mostly spoken in the Lakshadweep Islands and the state of Kerala in southern India. Languages like Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada are also members of the Dravidian language family, which includes Malayalam. The state of Kerala, which includes districts like Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kozhikode, and others, is where it is predominantly spoken. Malayali groups in various parts of India and the world also speak it. The Malayalam script, an abugida (alphasyllabary) developed from the Grantha script, which in turn comes from the Brahmi script, is used to write Malayalam. With a rich literary history spanning more than a millennium, Malayalam is home to numerous classical pieces of prose, poetry, and drama. Among the well-known authors of Malayalam are Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is regarded as the founder of contemporary Malayalam literature. The Malayali community’s cultural customs, festivals, and dance forms—such as Kathakali and Mohiniyattam—as well as music—such as Kerala classical music and movie songs—are intricately linked to the Malayalam language and culture. The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution recognizes Malayalam as one of the official languages. It is utilized in Keralan and other Malayali communities’ literature, education, media, and government administration. A vital component of India’s linguistic and cultural diversity, the Malayalam language and culture play a major role in maintaining and advancing Kerala’s unique cultural identity.

12. Manipuri

The language known as Manipuri, or Meiteilon, is mostly used in the state of Manipur in northeastern India. Manipuri is a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family’s Tibeto-Burman branch. Manipur is where it is most commonly spoken, especially in the Imphal Valley and its environs. Manipuri diaspora populations in other regions of India and beyond also speak it. The Meitei script (Meitei Mayek), an indigenous script derived from the ancient Brahmi alphabet, was formerly used in Manipuri. Nonetheless, in some situations, Manipuri is also written using the Bengali script. Classical literature from antiquity is part of Manipuri’s rich literary and cultural legacy. Poems, folktales, and manuscripts are all included. Poets Chongtham Kamala and Hijam Anganghal are well-known from Manipur. The Manipuri people’s cultural identity is inextricably linked to their language and culture, which has a profound impact on festivals like Yaoshang and Lai Haraoba, music, and performing arts like Thang-Ta and Ras Lila. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Manipuri as one of the official languages. In Manipur, it is employed in the media, education, government administration, and literary works.
The distinctive history and customs of the Manipuri population are preserved by the Manipuri language and culture, which add to the great diversity of languages and civilizations in northeastern India.

13. Marathi

The Indo-Aryan language of Marathi is mostly spoken in the Indian state of Maharashtra and its surrounding areas. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Marathi. The majority of its speakers are found in Maharashtra, which includes Nagpur, Nashik, Pune, Mumbai (previously Bombay), and other regions. Some areas of nearby states, including Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Telangana, also have Marathi speakers. The Devanagari script, which is also used for Hindi, Nepali, and Sanskrit, is used to write Marathi. The literary legacy of Marathi stretches back to the 13th century, when poets such as Namdev, Sant Tukaram, and Sant Dnyaneshwar contributed to the language. Renowned writers like Vinda Karandikar, P.L. Deshpande, and Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar have contributed to modern Marathi literature. The Indo-Aryan language of Marathi is mostly spoken in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The festivals, rituals, and music of the Marathi-speaking community—such as Tamasha and Powada, dances like Lavani and Bhavageet, and food habits like Maharashtrian cuisine—are intricately linked to the Marathi language and culture. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Marathi as one of the official languages. In Maharashtra and other areas where Marathi-speaking people live, it is utilized in government administration, education, the media, and literature.
An integral component of India’s linguistic and cultural diversity, the Marathi language and culture are vital to the preservation and advancement of Maharashtra’s cultural identity.

14. Nepali

The Indo-Aryan language known as Nepali, or Nepalese, is mostly spoken in Nepal and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, and Sikkim. Nepali is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch. The majority of people in Nepal speak it as their first language and it is the official language of the country. Speaking it outside of Nepal are Nepali diaspora communities in India and other countries.
The Devanagari script, which is also used to write Hindi, Marathi, and Sanskrit, is used to write Nepali. Poetry, folk ballads, and religious writings are among the classic works in Nepali literature’s long and illustrious history. Works by well-known poets and authors like Laxmi Prasad Devkota and Bhanubhakta Acharya are included in the canon of modern Nepali literature. The language and culture of Nepal are fundamental to the country’s cultural identity; they have an impact on dance (Dhime dance and Jhyaure folk dance), music (Nepali folk songs and contemporary Nepali music), and festivals (Dashain and Tihar). In addition to being the official language of Nepal, Nepali is listed on the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as one of the official languages. In Nepal and other Nepali-speaking areas of India, it is utilized in government administration, education, the media, and literature. The language and culture of Nepal contribute to the linguistic variety of South Asia and represent the varied background and customs of the Nepali people.

15. Odia

The Indo-Aryan language known as Odia, or just Odia, is mainly spoken in the Indian state of Odisha as well as in some areas of nearby states like Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. Odia is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch. The state of Odisha, which includes Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Puri, and other districts, is where it is predominantly spoken. Additionally, communities of Odia speakers in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal (particularly in the areas bordering Odisha), and Jharkhand speak it.
The syllabic Odia script (Odia Lipi) is used to write Odia and is developed from the Brahmi script. Poetry, epics (such as the Sarala Mahabharata), and religious writings are among the classic works in Odia’s rich literary heritage, which dates back to the tenth century. Prominent writers including Fakir Mohan Senapati, Gopabandhu Das, and Kalindi Charan Panigrahi have contributed to modern Odia literature. The Odia language and culture are strongly associated with the customs, festivals, and traditions of the Odia-speaking population. These include folk songs and Odissi music, Gotipua dance and Odissi dance, and Odia food and culinary traditions. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Odia as one of the official languages. In Odisha and other areas where there are large populations of Odia-speaking people, it is used in government administration, education, the media, and literature. An integral component of India’s linguistic and cultural diversity, Odia’s language and culture are vital to the preservation and advancement of Odisha’s cultural identity.

16. Punjabi

Speaks mostly in the Punjab region of both India and Pakistan, Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Punjabi. The Punjab province of Pakistan and the Indian state of Punjab are where it is primarily spoken. It is also spoken in several areas of Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana in India. In India, the Landa script is the source of the Gurmukhi script, which is used to write Punjabi. Shahmukhi script, a modified form of Perso-Arabic script, is used in Pakistan. Notable poets including Baba Farid, Guru Nanak, Bulleh Shah, and Waris Shah have made significant contributions to Punjabi literature, which dates back to the medieval era. Poetry, prose, and drama are all genres of contemporary Punjabi literature. The traditions, rituals, and celebrations of the Punjabi-speaking people are intimately linked to the Punjabi language and culture. These include dance forms such as Bhangra and Sammi, music like Bhangra and Giddha, and festivals like Baisakhi and Lohri. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Punjabi as one of the official languages. It is utilized in Punjabi literature, journalism, education, government administration, and Punjabi-speaking communities abroad. The language and culture of Punjab contribute significantly to the preservation and enhancement of the cultural identity of the Punjabi community and are an essential part of South Asia’s multifaceted linguistic and cultural environment.

17. Sanskrit

An important part of Indian literature, philosophy, religion, and culture is the ancient Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Sanskrit. With a history that dates back more than three millennia, it is among the oldest languages that people have ever learned. It has affected numerous languages in South Asia and was employed as a scholarly and religious language in ancient India. The Devanagari script, also used for languages like Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali, is traditionally used to write Sanskrit. Throughout history, it has also been written in a number of other scripts, such as Grantha and Brahmi scripts. A wide range of genres, including dramas, poetry (kavya), epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Upanishads, Vedas, and philosophical treatises (shastras), are included in the extensive and varied body of Sanskrit literature.
Sanskrit is used to write many of the core scriptures of Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. It has served as a vehicle for the expression of difficult theological and philosophical themes. In India and around the world, Sanskrit is still studied and utilized in gurukulas, traditional educational settings, universities, places of worship, and cultural contexts. Through cultural interactions, Sanskrit has influenced languages outside of India and helped shape several modern Indian languages. Sanskrit is still highly regarded for its accuracy, coherence, and profundity, which makes it essential to the comprehension and preservation of India’s intellectual and cultural legacy.

18. Santali

The Santal people, an indigenous group mostly found in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Assam as well as in Bangladesh and Nepal, speak Santali as their primary language. Santali is a member of the Munda branch of the Austroasiatic language family. It has a remote relationship to languages like Ho and Mundari. It is mostly spoken in the tribal regions of eastern India, which include parts of Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam, as well as districts in Jharkhand (such as East and West Singhbhum). Santal villages can also be found in Bangladesh and Nepal, two nearby nations. The Ol Chiki script, an indigenous alphabet made especially for the Santali language, was traditionally used to write Santali. Nowadays, the Devanagari script and sometimes the Roman script are also used to write the Santali language. Folktales, stories, and songs that have been passed down through the years are part of Santali’s rich oral culture. Santali literature has evolved in the modern era, with renowned authors adding to its rich cultural legacy. The Santal community’s identity is inextricably linked to its language and culture, which also influence art, festivals (like Sarhul and Baha), and music (like traditional Santali music and dances). With its unique traditions and customs, the community has a distinct cultural identity. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Santali as one of the official languages. In areas where Santali-speaking people are concentrated, it is utilized in government administration, education, media, and literature.
The Santali language and culture are essential to maintaining the Santal community’s cultural legacy and adding to the linguistic diversity of India and its surrounding nations.

19. Sindhi

The Indo-Aryan language known as Sindhi is predominantly spoken by the Sindhi diaspora across the globe and in the Sindh region of Pakistan. Sindhi is a member of the Indo-European language family’s Indo-Aryan branch.
The Sindh province of Pakistan, which includes the cities of Karachi, Hyderabad, and Sukkur, is where it is predominantly spoken. There are communities in several parts of India that speak Sindhi, especially in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
The Devanagari script is the source of the Sindhi script, which is used to write Sindhi traditionally. In Pakistan, Sindhi writing is most frequently done in the Perso-Arabic script. With a rich literary history spanning several centuries, Sindhi is home to great poetry, folktales, and Sufi writings. Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai are well-known authors and poets.
The traditions, rituals, and festivals of the Sindhi-speaking population are intimately linked to the Sindhi language and culture. These include the music (such as Sufi and Sindhi folk music), dance (such as Dhamal and Ho Jamalo), and culinary habits. One of Pakistan’s officially recognized languages is Sindhi. It is utilized by Sindhi-speaking communities abroad as well as in government administration, education, the media, and literature in Sindh.
The cultural identity of the Sindhi community is greatly preserved and promoted by the language and culture of Sindh, which also adds to the linguistic diversity of South Asia.

20. Tamil

The Dravidian language of Tamil is mainly spoken in the union territory of Puducherry and the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Along with Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, Tamil is a member of the Dravidian language family. Tamil Nadu, where it is the official language, and Puducherry are the two places where it is most often spoken. There are Tamil-speaking populations outside of India as well, including Tamil diaspora groups across the globe. One of the world’s oldest and most widely used scripts, Tamil (Tamil Lipi) is used to write Tamil. Because it’s an abugida script, vowel sounds are inherent to consonants. With epics like Silappatikaram and Manimekalai, philosophical writings, and classical poetry known as Sangam literature, Tamil literature boasts a rich literary legacy spanning over two millennia. Prominent authors like Kalki Krishnamurthy and Subramania Bharati have contributed to modern Tamil literature. The Tamil language and culture are essential to the identity of those who speak it; they have an impact on holidays such as Pongal and Tamil New Year, as well as dance forms like Bharatanatyam and folk dances, music (including Carnatic music and Tamil cinema songs), and dancing. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Tamil as one of the official languages. In Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, it is employed in the media, literature, education, and government administration. Tamil language and culture are renowned for its vibrant arts, classical literature, and linguistic diversity. They have made a substantial contribution to India’s cultural history.

21. Telugu

The Dravidian language known as Telugu, or Telugu, is mostly spoken in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Telugu is a member of the Dravidian language family, which also includes Malayalam, Tamil, and Kannada.
As the official language of the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, it is primarily spoken there. There are additional Telugu-speaking communities abroad and in other parts of India. The Telugu script, also known as Telugu Lipi, is an abugida script that was developed from the Brahmi script and is used to write Telugu. It is renowned for its unique rounded characters and is used to write Telugu. With almost a millennium of literary history, Telugu boasts a rich canon of traditional poetry, prose, and drama, including the Andhra Mahabharata and Annamayya’s compositions. Some of the most well-known authors of Telugu literature nowadays include Viswanatha Satyanarayana and Gurajada Apparao. The Telugu-speaking community’s traditions, customs, and festivals are intimately linked to the language and culture of Telugu. These include folk songs and Carnatic music, Kuchipudi and Perini dances, and culinary habits. The Indian Constitution’s Eighth Schedule lists Telugu as one of the official languages. In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, it is employed in government administration, education, the media, and literature.

22. Urdu

The Indo-Aryan language of Urdu holds great cultural and historical significance in South Asia, especially in Pakistan and certain regions of India. The Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family includes Urdu. It originated as a synthesis of Sanskrit, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian. Pakistan’s official language is Urdu, which is also one of India’s 22 scheduled languages. In both countries, it is spoken and understood in many areas, including big cities like Hyderabad, Delhi, Karachi, and Lahore. The Perso-Arabic script (Nastaliq), a modified version of the Arabic alphabet, is traditionally used to write Urdu. The writing is done from right to left. Since the 14th century, poets and writers such as Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Ghalib, Allama Iqbal, and Faiz Ahmed Faiz have contributed to the rich literary heritage of Urdu. Urdu literature consists of plays, novels, short tales, and poetry (ghazals, nazms). The traditions, customs, and artistic expressions of the Urdu-speaking community—such as dance forms like Kathak and classical and contemporary music like Qawwali and cinema songs—are intricately linked to the Urdu language and culture. Pakistan recognizes Urdu as its national language, and India recognizes it as one of its official languages. In both nations, it is utilized in literature, media, education, and government administration. The language and culture of Urdu have greatly influenced South Asia’s literary and cultural environment, acting as a conduit for the expression of various populations and influencing the region’s creative and intellectual traditions.

Takeaway

Hindi and English are the two official national languages of India. 22 scheduled languages are also recognized by it, including Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, and Assamese. Additionally, every state has the authority to declare one of its official languages, such as Tamil in Tamil Nadu and Marathi in Maharashtra. The linguistic diversity of the nation is supported by this policy.

National Handloom Day – Importance of Handlooms & Weavers

Tasneem Sariya

August 7, 2024

The National Handloom Day was celebrated a few days back on 7^th August. I am sure when each one of us think of handlooms, we conjure up some image, event or memory with it. For instances, whenever I think of handlooms, I immediately remember the roadside stall named as the Handloom Emporium stacked with colorful and unique items. The open stall unlike any high end fashion or utility store always captured my imagination and till date if I pass through the road, I either stop by or quickly glance through to check out the products. Similarly, one can also associate handloom markets during exhibitions where stalls are lined with bags, mats, décor items, curtains, mattresses, cushion covers and so on.

Why is the National Handloom Day celebrated?

7^th August holds a special significance. It was in 1905 on 7^th August that the Swadeshi Movement acquired momentum. With the Bengal partition, a formal proclamation came about at the Calcutta Town Hall that boycotted all foreign made goods. The idea was to concentrate and encourage local products. The government in 2015 introduced the National Handloom Day to stimulate and acknowledge weavers and local artisans. This year marked the 6th celebration which was carried out through online mediums.

But before we move further, let’s dwell a bit on understanding the handlooms better.

What does handloom mean?

Handloom-Day — Image – Ingodesigng5 via Flickr

A handloom essentially means any other loom besides the powerloom. However, in 2012 this definition was expanded to also incorporate the hybrid loom where at least one weaving process requires manual or human intervention.

There are basically three different kinds of looms that weavers use manually. They are the pit looms, stand loom and frame loom. Yarn is the ‘thread’ that is used to make the cloth or fabric. The dyeing of the yarn is an important activity before actual weaving or looming. The texture of the hand woven fabric varies from that of a mill or machine made fabric.

Difference between Handloom Fabric and Khadi

A handloom is the loom that the weavers use without any electricity. The fabric that is woven on handlooms using hand spun yarn is called khadi. On the other hand, the yarn that is spun in mills and woven on handloom is called handloom fabrics.

Popular Handloom Fabrics Across States

Now that we know the technical definition of what handlooms mean let’s move a step further. Let’s take a look at the different handlooms of India across the different states. There are of course, many more, but highlighting some below.

1. Kanjeevaram – Tamil Nadu

Originating in Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu the Kanjeevaram sarees are one of the most popular handloom products. The sarees can sometimes take up to 6 months to be made and are usually worn on special occasions, such as weddings.

2. Ikat – Odisha

Indian Handloom-Ikat — Image – RubyGoes via Flickr

Though the Ikat art is woven across the country, it is most concentrated in Odisha. It is usually the members of the Bhulia and Meher community who for generations have mastered this weaving art. The culture of the land is often depicted in the patterns and designs.

3. Kalamkari – Andhra Pradesh

One of the oldest weaving arts, the Kalamkari fabrics flourished the most during the Mughal era. Today the fabric is well known for its block and hand painted designs.

4. Banarasi Brocade Work – Uttar Pradesh

Banarasi sarees are very popular products woven by the handloom weavers in Varanasi. The weavers weave silver and gold into the fabric creating a piece of magical proportions. The banarasi saree still remains one of the most sought after wardrobe treasures.

5. Bandhani and Patan Patola – Gujarat

Bandhani uses the method of ‘tie and dye’ and is practiced in both Rajasthan and Gujarat. With circular and square motifs the bandhani fabrics exude bright colors. The patan patola, on the other hand, is made from silk. Originating in the town of Patan in Gujarat the weavers work for months before the final product is creating. This method also involves both dying and weaving techniques.

6. Bhagalpuri Silk – Bihar

Bhagalpur is known for producing one of the finest silk of the country. The fabric is made from the tussar cocoons and is most famous in the form of Bhagalpuri sarees.

Some of the other handloom arts include, pachachuli weaving from Uttarakhand, pachra from Tripura, Lepcha from Sikkim, panja durries from Haryana, kosa silk weaving from Chhatisgarh, muga silk weaving from Assam, chikankari, zardozi, gota and many.

Some facts About Indian Handlooms

The handloom industry is the second largest employment sector after agriculture in rural India.
It has more than 4.3 million people involved either directly or indirectly.
There are about 2.4 million looms of different kinds that power the industry.
Almost 15% of cloth production in the country comes from the handloom industry.
Hand woven cloths or fabrics from India account for 95% of the world’s production of hand woven fabric.
The handloom industry also has a flourishing export market. The export of handloom products in 2019 was at a value of US $ 343.69 million.

(Source: ibef.org)

The All India Handloom Board (AIHB)

The All India Handloom Board was set up in 1992. It included government officials, as well as representatives of the handloom industry including weavers and experts. The government in a move that has both riled and surprised handicraft experts abolished the AIHB and the All India Handicrafts Board only a few days before the National Handloom Day. According to the government this move was in line with its vision of ‘Minimum Government and Maximum Governance’. The boards however, were the direct link between the weavers and artisans on ground.

#vocal4handmade

This year the Union Minister of Textiles, Smriti Irani tweeted the #vocal4handmade hashtag and encouraged to ‘bring home handmade in India.’ The idea is to roll out the concept of Atmanirbharta or being self-reliance and pitching for products Made in India. A lot of celebrities and citizens posted their pictures and various information or anecdotes encouraging the weavers and artists of the handloom industry.

The Paradox

Where on one hand, the handloom products are sold very locally, on the other the fabrics are also used by popular designers. We have a huge handloom export market and some of the top designers of the country also incorporate and encourage the handloom wears. Popular Bollywood stars, such as Rekha, Vidya Balan and Deepika Padukone are often seen carrying off handloom garments with ease and style.

And hence, the fate of the handloom industry oscillates between the two ends. The number of local weavers has seen a decline with the new generation opting for other professions due to the decreasing returns in the occupation of their forefathers. Villagers account for how where once almost every other household had a loom, but today only a few homes remain that still practice the art of weaving. Due to the stiff competition from machine made products at much cheaper rates, the handloom industry has witnessed a gradual fall. The condition of the weavers which were once hailed and respected during the times of royalty and kings is relegated to cheap labor. The increased cost of raw materials, lack in credit facilities and poor infrastructure has also impacted the handloom industry.

Yes, there are various schemes, in fact more than 10 by the government for the weavers. Yet, there is very little change that it has managed to bring about on the ground. Thankfully there are also many NGO’s that are taking it upon themselves to promote the handloom industry. Also technology and the online marketplaces dedicated sometimes exclusively to handlooms and handicrafts have also been a big plus to the industry. The handloom industry has its own niche market and people are increasingly more aware of the skill and hard work that goes into making a handmade product. Connoisseurs of art and people associated with the textile or fashion industry are making efforts to revive and market the handloom products. And the consumer is also acknowledging the uniqueness of these products. However, there is the need to further uplift and empower these skilled artisans.

The Handloom Industry during COVID

The present times have not been easy for many. The weavers are no different as the handloom industry has been hit badly and the desperation of the weavers has only been heightened by the COVID pandemic. With businesses falling and market places shut down the local artisans are grappling to sell their products. Also, usually rural exhibitions and bazaars were held from January to June every year helping the local handloom goods find a viable marketplace. Due to the current pandemic and social distancing norms, this door has shut too.

Takeaways

What can you do to encourage the handloom industry? How can we as ordinary people play a role in sustaining our weavers and artisans?

For those who can afford, buying authentic handloom products will not only sustain the local weavers, but also help in preserving and encouraging the art itself. Sharing and spreading the word, buying local made products and opting for handloom arts, if not always, at least often can also push the industry forward. There are handloom brands, such as Fab India, Ethicus, Upasana, Angadi Gallery and more. There are also various online shopping platforms, such as Weavesmart, Gaatha, itokri and more. In the end, our weavers and local artisans will only feel empowered when consumers show them the love, financial support and respect that they deserve.

Exploring the Timeless Beauty of Traditional Houses of Rajasthan

Shiksha

August 6, 2024

Traditional-Houses-of-Rajasthan-01 — Image – Amiya/Flickr

Rajasthan is known as the ‘Land of Kings’ is one of the most popular states in the north western region of India and acclaimed for its royal essence as its palaces and traditions reflect. So, the architecture of Rajasthan is as rich and colorful as its history, the reflection of the royal witnessed past and the adaptation needed due to the desert conditions. This discussion is and most definitely not exhaustive in offering fascinating features of the architecture in Rajasthani but it is satisfying to discover that houses, which depict the creativity as well as resourcefulness of the inhabitants of this area, do not lack the charm that forms part and parcel of the commercial hustles and bustles. It is also sad to note that while these houses are used for living, they go beyond that they are the permanent mark of ethnic quality, adaptation to climate, and aesthetic qualities.

Rajasthan Houses Historical Context

The construction of houses in Rajasthan would have undergone certain changes and transition concerning architectural style, materials, and use from time and within the specific constructive context of the area. This has been so due to its location to center trade routes in the ancient world thus Cavite was and is a melting pot of many cultures. Thus, it can be noted that this blending is seen in the architecture where Rajput, Mughal as well as touch of Persian styles are seen in the region. These houses’ past is closely associated with the lifestyle of its inhabitants, primarily the Rajputs, the warrior caste who dominated the area for many years and their requirements for defense and ornamentation.

Climatic Adaptation

Rajasthan’s climate is characterized by hot weather and a large part of the state is arid, high temperatures during the summer season and lack of precipitation. These extreme climatic conditions are effectively fought off by traditional houses through their architectural designs. Vast walls constructed with stones like sandstone, limestone and mud bring in the virtue in which the building does not need artificial cooling in summer or heating in winters. The application of courtyards is typical; they are climatic cells that provide for natural cross-ventilation and illumination of the premises with the help of predetermined parameters.

Rajasthan Architectural Features

1. Havelis

Traditional-Houses-of-Rajasthan-Havelis — Image – Ashwin Kumar/Flickr

Of all the traditional structures which are found in Rajasthan, havelis can be described as some of the finest homes which represent prosperity. These large mansions were constructed by the prosperity traders and nobles and are recognized by their elaborate exterior, oriel windows or jharokhas, an enclosed balcony, and the wall paintings. Some of the exuberant examples of this are the Patwon Ki Haveli and Nathmal Ki Haveli in Jaisalmer and the Shekhawati havelis. Another significant aspect of a haveli is that it has more than one courtyard which is used according to the hierarchy of a particular house.

2. Jharokhas

Jharokhas in Traditional Houses of Rajasthan — Image – Wikimedia

Jharokhas are one of the most characteristic features of the Rajasthani structure. These are literally overhanging enclosed balconies in a practicing aesthetic and architectural functionality in accommodating puritanical religious iconography that stipulates seclusion of women by allowing them to peek through the street activities without being seen as it was the practice of purdah. Jharokhas are very aesthetic structures with fancy carved and lattice work carrying out the mastery of the workers.

3. Chhatris

This is a pavilion that is raised on a platform that has an arched roof which is also domed in the cenotaphs known as Chhatris, which is a memorial put in place for royalty and nobles. In conventional architectures of traditional houses, chhatris reduced to protégé models are incorporated in roof designs or occasionally in the form of pavilionaries in the interior compound. They complement a structure of architecture and at the same time are symbols of pride and honor of Rajputana.

4. Courtyards

Courtyards-in-Traditional-Houses-of-Rajasthan — Image – Jean-Pierre Dalbéra/Flickr

Courtyards are geometrical spaces which form a key pattern of Rajasthani houses. They are useful for purposes like ventilation, lighting and functions such as social gathering among the dwellers. Courtyards are always enclosed from every side by rooms and are thus well protected from the outside world. Avant-garde buildings come with a central water body or a garden, which enriches the looks and the ecological appeal.

5. Frescoes and Paintings

Frescoes and Paintings Traditional-Houses-of-Rajasthan — Image – Kandukuru Nagarjun/Flickr

Intricate frescoes and paintings can be seen on the walls of the traditional houses and especially the havelis. These are cultural and religious representations of scenes from myths, everyday life, and history of the civilization. The Shekhawati area is most famous for painted havelis which are in fact, the town’s art gallery exposed to open sky.

Regional Variations

1. Jaisalmer

The city popularly referred to as the Golden City, Jaisalmer has homes and forts mostly made of yellow sandstone. Some of the traditional houses existent in the area are constructed in desert-like regions; therefore, they have small doors and a lot of walls. Of it the creative carving on doors, windows and balconies, elaborate stonework is worth mentioning.

2. Jaipur

Jaipur is well-known as Pink City and it has the mixture of both Mughal and Rajput Architecture. The traditional houses which are locally known as ‘pols’, found mostly in the old city of Jaipur are usually painted brightly with distinct and beautiful engravings. Another characteristic is façade decoration backed by pink sandstone, and most of the houses boast of arched doors, jharokhas, and yards.

3. Udaipur

Udaipur also known as the “City of Lakes” is prominent for its beautiful havelis and palaces. Some of the local buildings in the vicinity are observed to have incorporated the principles of their environment by having courtyard and terrace views of the lakes. Frequent use of white marble and impressive mirror work is also seen, which symbolizes the magnificence of the Mewar kingdom.

4. Shekhawati

Traditional_Houses_of_Rajasthan_Shekhawati — Nawalgarh in Shekhawati – Rainer Voegeli/Flickr

The architecture of the Shekhawati area is particularly known for painted merchants’ houses called havelis with religious themes, legends, and even daily life scenes painted on their walls. Traditional Rajasthani houses feature aesthetic artistic work and have historical values; thus, the region is known as Shekhawati, the open art gallery of Rajasthan.

Construction Materials and Techniques

Craftsmen in building traditional houses in Rajasthan use materials that are readily available in the region hence making it cheaper and friendly to the environment. The common materials used in the construction of buildings are sand stone, limestone Marbles for walls and floorings, locally wood and metal for doors, windows and Ornaments. The practices used in construction are conventional such that the structures developed can withstand the climatic extremes.

Social and Cultural Significance

The houses are not just buildings; they are part of the people’s lives in Rajasthan and their culture. It has been evident that the design of these houses and their layout represents the very social relations of that time with special sections for men and women, master and the servants, and the visitors. The yards are used for social and religious purposes, which makes families interact and maintain the traditions of a particular culture.

Frescoes, paintings and carvings on walls and roofs of the houses are ways of conserving and passing on traditions. The ideas illustrated in these pieces of art may include cultural and biblical messages, pro and anti-social behaviors and values, history, genealogy, and myths from one generation to the other.

Modern Challenges and Preservation

Preservation of Traditional-Houses-of-Rajasthan — Image – Kandukuru Nagarjun/Flickr

Nowadays, several barriers are experienced while maintaining the conventional houses in Rajasthan. Due to new trends in Latin American countries’ urbanization, the transformation in people’s way of life, and economic shifts have contributed to abandonment of many aging structures. The application of contemporary construction materials and construction methods erases climatic as well as cultural characteristics that traditional houses exemplify.

But, today, attempts are being made towards the conservation and restoration of such architectures. Steps have been taken by the governments regarding the identity and experience of traditional houses along with involvement of NGOs and heritage conservationists to preserve uniqueness and cultural values of houses. The other strategy is intended to create awareness as well as funds for promotion of heritage tourism.

Conclusion

The old structures of Rajasthan are well designed, cultural property that also includes an insight to the adaptations that were made regarding the climatic conditions and artistic creativity of that period. Many buildings that served residential purposes are in use today; starting with their magnificent havelis occupied by millionaires and extending to simple houses for common people; all these structures focus on the climate conditions, social norms, and standards, as well as preferences in terms of design. It remains as one of the royal structures that depicts the capability as well the art of the people of Rajasthan and at the same time as a symbol of its culture and history.

It is important to conserve these traditional houses as much as possible in order to be able to pass the native identity of Rajasthan as well as architectural legacy of the state to the future generations. As we strive forward, one should attempt to integrate the new development with the preservation of history to use the benefits and advancements of the future while still respecting the lifestyle of the past. Unfortunately there will still be a lot of traditional houses in Rajasthan and their continuing beauty and influence is certain to perpetually enthrall anyone that comes across any form of information regarding the constructions.

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Purpose of Art

The Great Indian Artists

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Takeaway

Diversity of Jharkhand

Festivals of Jharkhand

1. Karam/Jawa

2. Sarhul

3. Jitiya

4. Tusu Parab

5. Nawakhani

6. Hal Punhya

7. Sohrai/Bandana

8. Rohini

9. Baha

10. Jani Shikar

11. Bhagta Parab

Takeaway

What is CTA Filing?

Why is CTA Filing Important?

Who Needs to File Under the CTA?

Exemptions:

Conclusion

Who should we remember on Independence Day?

Birsa Munda

Peer Ali Khan

Maatangini Haazra

Aruna Asif Ali

Khudiram Bose

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Bhikaji Cama

Chandra Shekhar Azad

Kanaklata Barua

Tanguturi Prakasam

India Before 1857

1857 Revolt

Early 19th century

Sarojini Naidu

Annie Besant

Madam Cama

Kamala Nehru

Vijay Lakshmi Pandit

Aruna Asaf Ali

Kalpana Dutta

Kasturba Gandhi

Usha Mehta

Introduction

Mysuru Historical Background

Festivals Celebrated in Mysuru

Mysuru Cuisine

Mysuru Arts and Crafts

Music and Dance of Mysuru

Religion in Mysuru

Languages in Mysuru

Literature in Mysuru

Architecture of Mysuru

Conclusion

Introduction

Origins of Batto Bai Dolls

Craftsmanship of Batto Bai Dolls

Cultural Significance of Batto Bai Dolls

Challenges and Revival Efforts

Conclusion

Early 19^th century